What are erceptions of a place
- relative to people, place and time, for example in London eg
- Wealthier people, who have a higher quality of life and more opportunities, may view London as exciting and enjoy the fast pace of life
- Poorer people, with a lower quality of life, may feel economically and socially trapped by London
- Inequality can make young people feel like however hard they work, they will be unable to break the cycle of inequality (unable to afford a house or get a well-paid job)
- Retired people may view London as too busy and look for other places which offer a slower pace of life
Cumulative causation model
- new industry enters an area
- creates more jobs
- increases demand for services
- attracts more people
- spending power increases
- encourages investment
- area grows attracting invention and innovation
- attracts more industries improving local wealth
Things that may characterise a successful region
- High rates of employment
- High rates of inward migration (both internal and international)
- Higher levels of income
- Low levels of multiple deprivation
Negative effects of having a ‘successful region’
- High property prices
- Skills shortages in urban and rural areas e.g. teachers, healthcare workers
- Congestion of roads and public transport
- Strains on services, such as healthcare and education
San fran as a successful place
- an international centre for commerce and innovation, particularly as a hub for the technology industry
- IT and digital media companies, like Twitter and Dropbox, have their headquarters there
- attracted highly educated migrants from across the USA, as well as Asia
- The multiplier effect is fuelled by its technological and transportation infrastructure, high quality of life and highly skilled workforce
- San Francisco is one of the wealthiest cities in the USA, with low unemployment levels of about 3%
San fran as an unsuccessful place
- diversity of ethnic groups decreasing (in 1970 14.4% black, in 2016 only 6%)
- affordability crisis
- housing crisis
- In 2015, 64,000 jobs were created but only 5,000 new homes were built
- The average house in San Francisco now costs over $1.25 million
- the arrival of tech companies has led to the gentrification of poorer neighbourhoods so that many existing residents can no longer afford to live there
What is deindustrialisation and what does it cause
- factories close leading to unemployment
- Skilled, local people leave the area to find work, leaving behind the less skilled or older workers, who would be difficult to retrain (spiral of decline)
Spiral of decline
- Industries start to downsize and close.
- Unemployment increases.
- Household income decreases.
- Local spending decreases.
- Tax revenues fall.
- Investment in public services decreases.
- The area becomes unattractive to new investors.
- Employment opportunities decline.
- Economically able people migrate elsewhere.
- The cycle feeds back into further economic decline of the area.
The rust belt as an unsuccessful region
The main cause of the deindustrialisation in Flint is due to the global shift made by TNCs.
- This meant that the 80,000 people the GM industry employed in its peak during the 1950’s were soon made unemployed.
- As of 2024, GM employs approximately 5,000 to 6,000 people in Flint
- caused mass unemployment and underfunded public services.
- Crime rose and quality of life fell; by 2000s, Flint had among the highest U.S. unemployment rates.
- Population dropped over 50% (1960–2010), leaving many homes and factories abandoned.
- Local authorities struggled to maintain empty buildings and infrastructure.
- Nearly 40% of residents lived below the poverty line by the 2000s.
- Unemployment and poor services led to rising crime and social instability.
- Police budget cuts made crime control difficult.
- School closures occurred due to reduced funding and population decline.
- Lower-quality education reduced students’ future job prospects.
- This cycle reinforced low household income and prolonged poverty.
Areas with a high priority for regeneration
- sink estates
- declining rural settlements
Areas with a low priority for regeneration
- gated communities
- commuter cities
Cornwall as a declining rural region
- Deindustrialisation: Collapse of traditional industries such as tin and copper mining, fishing, and quarrying during the late 20th century.
- Peripherality: Poor transport links (long travel times to London, no motorway) limit investment.
- Seasonal Economy: Heavy reliance on tourism, leading to unstable, low-paid, and part-time jobs.
- Outmigration: Young, skilled workers move away for education and better job opportunities, leaving behind an aging population.
- Low average incomes – among the lowest in the UK.
- High unemployment and underemployment in winter months.
- House price inflation due to second homes and holiday lets.
- Service decline (school closures, limited healthcare access).
What is a sink estate
- Areas of low-income groups in need of greater social assistance, who have been segregated from the rest of society
- Often have high levels of crime, drugs and gang warfare
Children born in these areas are - Twice as likely to have mental health problems
- A fifth more likely to die
- Eleven times more likely to be severely deprived
- People living in these estates get trapped in a spiral of decline
EX - lower Falinge in Rochdale (1000 people)
What is a declining rural settlement
- These settlements are less accessible
High levels of deprivation in terms of access to services, such as - Banks
- Post offices
- Leisure centres
- Travel time to food shops, doctors, schools
- Broadband and mobile coverage
- An estimated 200 village shops close every year
Other measures of deprivation are good, such as - Community safety
- Housing
- Environment
- Employment
EX: Dartmoor national park
What is a gated community
- Enclosed estates or buildings are often found in regenerated areas of the inner-city
- Walls, gates and controlled entrances separate the gated community from the rest of the area
- People who live in these areas tend to have higher incomes than the people living outside the gated community
- Low levels of deprivation
- Emphasises the large inequality between those in the gated community and those outside
- The number of gated communities is increasing in the UK, with approximately 5 million of them
EX: docklands in London
What is a commuter village
- The majority of rural populations live in accessible rural places, which are experiencing population growth
- Accessible rural places are close to high-speed railways and motorways, encouraging commuters to locate there
- These places tend to have wealthy, economically active populations and low levels of deprivation
- Fewer services are required as commuters do not always demand local shops, schools or bus services
- House prices increase, forcing out the lower-paid, young local people
EX: audlem near Manchester
