1
Q
Wundt
A
- Grandfather of experimental psychology
- Leipzig Uni, Germany
- Set up first lab dedicated to experimental psych
- Used scientific methods to study human consciousness
- Used introspection
2
Q
Introspection
A
- The first systematic and experimental attempt to study human behaviour
- Breaking consciousness down into thoughts, feelings and sensations
- Stimulus e.g. ticking metronome
- Compared responses
- Standardised and controlled for replication
3
Q
The emergence of psychology as a science
A
- The scientific status of introspection was being questioned by behaviourists
- Subjective data
- Introspection focuses on ‘private mental processes’
- Watson and skinner brought the language, rigour and methods of the natural sciences into psych
- Used carefully controlled lab studies
4
Q
Assumptions of the behaviourist approach
A
- Observable, quantifiable behaviour
- All behaviour is learnt
- Humans are no different to animals
5
Q
Classical conditioning
A
- Learning by Association
- Pavlov
- Type of learning in which an existing involuntary reflex is associated with a new stimulus
- Associate the sound of a bell (NS) with food (US). Resulted in the dog producing a salivation response (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS), even when no food is present.
- Repeated exposure to an event leads to a learned and uncontrollable behaviour
6
Q
Operant conditioning
A
- BF Skinner
- Consequences of behaviour:
1. Positive reinforcement = adding a pleasant consequence
2. Neg reinforcement =
removing an unpleasant consequence
3. Punishment = adding something negative or taking away something positive
7
Q
Assumptions of the social learning theory
A
- Observable learning of behaviour performed by role models
- Recognised the importance of cognitive processes - mediational processes - and rejects the notation that learning is purely the outcome of a stimulus - response loop
8
Q
What are mediational processes?
A
- Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
- If these factors are implemented, imitation takes place
- If the observed behaviour is rewarded, imitation is more likely
- Observation of others is what Bandura called vicarious reinforcement
9
Q
The role of mediational processes?
A
- Attention - to what extent was the behaviour noticed
- Retention - how well was the behaviour remembered
- Motor reproduction - how able is the observer reproduce the behaviour. They THINK they will be able to carry out the behaviour
- Motivation - the will to carry out the behaviour is observed - rewarded
10
Q
What do social learning theorists mean by identification?
A
- We are likely to be fairly choosey in who we imitate
- Role models e.g. similar characteristics, high status
11
Q
The bobo doll study
A
- Aim to investigate whether children who observed an aggressive adult were more likely to also act aggressively towards the bobo doll
- Procedure is that Bandura et al. recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way
- Results showed the children who had watched an adult act aggressively towards a bobo doll acted way more aggressively compared to those who had watched a non aggressive adult, also when a boy saw a man do it they were more likely to replicate it then a woman
- Provides evidence for this idea of learning through observation and imitiation
12
Q
What does the cognitive approach study?
A
Examination of internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention, and consciousness
13
Q
Internal mental processes
A
- The operations that occur during thinking
e.g.
Perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving - Concepts cannot be directly observed so inferences can be made
14
Q
What is an inference?
A
The process of drawing conclusions about what is going on inside someones mind, based on observed behaviours.
15
Q
Theoretical models
A
Diagrams representing the steps involved in internal mental processes - information processing approach e.g. cognitive triad
16
Q
Computer models
A
Computer simulations of mental processes - analogies of computers, may involve using computer language
17
Q
The role of Schema in cognitive psychology
A
- Cognitive processing can often be affected by a persons belief or expectations (schema)
- Packages of info that act as cognitive frameworks to help us organise and interpret info
- Develop with age / experience
- Process info very quickly and predict what happens
- But can be distorted
18
Q
Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
A
- Is the scientific study of the influence of brain structure on mental processes
- Paul Broca - Brocas area
- New tech e.g. FMRI and PET scans
- Tulving et al. episodic and semantic memory
- Braver et al. CE
- Psychiatric disorders
19
Q
Assumptions of the biological approach
A
- All human behaviour has a biological origin
- Understanding internal biological structures and processes
e.g. genes, evolution, nervous system, neurochemistry
20
Q
Genotype vs phenotype
A
- Genotype is the genetic makeup fixed from birth
- Phenotype is the expression of their genes influenced by both genetic inheritance and interactions with the environment
21
Q
Concordance rates
A
How similar the twins are in a particular expressed trait. If MZ twins have a higher concordance rate than DZ twins then a genetic cause can be implied, rather than an environmental cause.
22
Q
Twin Studies findings
A
- MZ twins have an increased CR of developing schizophrenia
- McGuffin et al. have found that if one identical twin has depression theres a 46% chance the other one will too
- This suggests that there is a genetic component to illnesses
23
Q
Evolution and behaviour
A
- Darwin’s theory of natural selection
- Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances a species likelihood of survival will be passed onto future generations
-Example of evolutionary psychology research is Buss’s survey of heterosexual mate selection - 37 countries
- Men preferred good looks, youth and chastity
- Women preferred good financial prospects and insustriousness
- Suggesting that certain traits and behaviour have evolved
24
Q
Influence of neurochemistry on behaviour
A
- At the synapse, signals are sent between neurones by chemicals called neurochemicals
- Imbalances = atypical behaviour
- Crockett et al. - abnormally low levels of seritonin linked to agressive behaviour, indicating that this neurotransmitter is important in regulating behaviour and impulse control
25
Structure of the nervous system
Nervous system-
CNS-
Spinal chord, brain
Peripheral nervous system-
Somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system (sympathetic nervous system, parasympathetic nervous system)
26
What is the role of the Central Nervous system?
- Consists of brain and spinal chord
- Brain provides conscious awareness
-Brainstem connects the brain and spinal nervous system and controls involuntary processes e.g. heartbeat, breathing and consciousness
- Spinal chord transfers messages to and from the brain and also for simple reflex actions
27
What is the role of the Peripheral Nervous system?
- Made up of autonomic and somatic nervous system
- Somatic receives info from the senses and transmits it to the CNS. It also transmits info from the CNS to direct movement of muscles
- Autonomic plays an important role in homeostasis, which maintains internal processes like body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure etc.
28
What is the role of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
- Sympathetic prepares the body for fight or flight
- E.g. our heart rate increase whilst less important functions like digestion are suppressed
- Parasympathetic relaxes the body and returns us to normal resting phase so slows down out heart and breathing rate and reduces our blood pressure
- Slowed down functions start again
29
Define what is meant by the endocrine system
The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system and is a network of glands across the body that secrete chemical messages called hormones. It uses blood vessels and works much more slowly than the nervous system. It has widespread effects and is responsible for instructing various glands to release hormones to produce different effects.
30
Define the term gland
Glands are groups of cells that secrete one or more hormones
e.g. adrenal gland = adrenaline
thyroid = thyroxine
31
Define the term hormone
Hormones are chemicals that circulate in the bloodstream and are carried to target sites throughout the body. Each hormone stimulates that area of the body and affects certain cells. These target cells respond with receptors.
32
Fight or flight response
1. Stressor is percieved
2. Hypothalamus triggers the sympathetic nervous system
3. A NS changes from its usual resting state - the parasympathetic state
4. Adrenaline is released from the adrenal mendulla into the blood stream
5. Physical arousal needed for fight or flight
6. Once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to normal rest
33
What's a neuron and the structures?
- They are nerve cells that process and transmit messages through electrical and chemical impulses in the nervous system.
- Dendrites receive nerve impulses from neighbouring neurons or sensory receptors and carry them towards the cell body
- The cell body includes the nucleus with genetic material
- The axion carries impulses, in the form of action potential, and is insulated in myelin sheath which is segmented by Nodes of Ranvier
- Terminal buttons are at the end of the axon which communicate with the next neuron
34
Types of neurons
- Motor are found in the CNS and connect it to effectors to control muscle movements
- Relay are found between sensory imput and motor output
- Sensory carry messages from the peripheral nervous system to the CNS
35
Synaptic transmission
-Neurons communicate with each other within neural networks
- Synapse transfers info chemically via neurotransmitters
- A neurotransmitter is a chemical released from the presynaptic nerve that relays a signal across synapse
- Inhibition causes neighbouring neurons to become more positively charged, neuron more likely to fire
- Excitation means increased neg charge, neuron less likely to fire
- Process of summation means majority rules
36
The role of the unconscious in the Psychodynamic approach
- Metaphor of iceberg
- Consciousness being the small part of the structure which we are aware of (top of iceberg)
- Unconscious taking up a much larger proportion of the human mins (beneath the surface), even though we are not directly aware or able to access it at will
- Any traumatic events from childhood suppressed into the unconscious mind
- Unconscious mind can reveal itself including dreams, fantasies and Freudian slips
37
The structure of personality according to the psychodynamic approach
1. The id = pleasure principle
- Primitive part of our personality and is presented from birth
- Unconscious biological drives
- Demands instant gratification (rewards w pleasure)
2. The ego = reality principle to tame the id
- Reduces the conflicts between the demands of the id and the superego
- No morals just reality
- Defence mechanisms
3. The superego = morality principle
- Represents the moral standards of out same sex parent
- Punishes the ego through guilt but rewards the ego with pride
- Direct opposition to the id
38
Defence mechanisms
- Used by the ego to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and superego
- Ego works by distorting reality
39
Examples of defence mechanisms
1. Repression - an unconscious mechanism employed by the ego to keep disturbing or threatening thoughts from becoming conscious
2. Denial - blocking external events from awareness
3. Displacement - satisfying an impulse with a substitute object
40
Psychosexual stages
- Oral is 0 to 2 and focuses on the mouth e.g. sucking and biting. Oral fixation e.g. smoking.
- Anal is 2 to 3 and focuses on the anus e.g. child becomes aware of the reality principle imposed by parents and must undergo potty training. Obsessive perfectionist - anal retentive, Messy and thoughtless - expulsive.
- Phallic is 3 to 6 and focuses on genitals e.g. the oedipus complex which is where infant boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother by identifying with their father. Phallic fixation is narcissistic behaviour.
- Latent is 6 to puberty and is hidden, friendships, fixations are immaturity and struggles with self esteem.
- Genital is puperty + and is forming heterosexual relationships and the formation of adult relationships, fixation is struggle forming them.
-
41
Free will in the humanistic approach
- Everyone can have a choice in how we behave
- Control and influence their own personal destiny, even with constraints
42
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
1. Biological needs e.g. air, food
2. Safety needs e.g. resources, employement
3. Love and belonging from family and sexual partner
4. Self - esteem and respect form others
5. Self - actualisation e.g. spirituality, creativity
43
Self - actualisation and the self
Self - actualisation - Innate desire to reach full potential and honest relationship with the realities of an imperfect world
The self - An individuals consciousness in relation to their own identity
44
Roles of conditions of worth
- When an individual is the recipient of unconditional positive regard
- Parents are often the people who provide a child with unconditional positive regard
- However, some parents impose conditions of worth on their children meaning that they must behave in certain ways to receive this (now conditional) positive regard
- See their approval as dependent
- Only feel self - acceptance when meet conditions which produces a feeling of incongruence
45
Congruence
Their concept of self, must be broadly equivalent to their ideal self
46
Influence of humanistic psych on councelling
Rogerian therapy closes the gap of incongruence between self - concept and the ideal self, and thus allow an individual to recognise both their psychological limits and their strengths. Therapist provides unconditional positive regard by expressing empathy e.g.
47
Comparing approaches
Internal mental processes, disorders and treatments, free will vs determinism, scientific methodology, reductionism.
Psych
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
