1
Q
Explain what is meant by coding in relation to memory
A
- Information is stored in memory in different forms
- The process of converting information between different stores is called coding
2
Q
Outline one research study into the coding of short term memory
A
- Baddeley presented participants with 4 list of words
- Acoustically similar or dissimilar, semantically similar or dissimilar
- Words were presented at one at a time
- Participants were then asked to recall the correct order of the words immediately and after 20 mins
- When asked initially, participants struggled to recall the correct order of acoustically similar words -> acoustic confusion
- After 20 minutes participants stuggled to recall semantically similar words -> semantic confusuon
- STM prefers to code acoustically and LTM prefers to code semantically
3
Q
Explain what is meant by capacity in relation to memory
A
The amount of information that can be stored in memory at any one time.
4
Q
Describe research findings into capacity
A
- Jacobs (1887) used the digit span technique to assess capacity in STM
- He found that the average span for digits was 9.3 items and 7.3 for letters
- Miller suggested that the capacity of ST%M was around 7+/- 2 items
- Noted that people can recall 5 words as easy as 5 letters - known as chinking - groups set of digits or letters into something meaningful
5
Q
Explain what is meant by the term duration in relation to memory
A
Duration is the length of time memories are available for retrieval.
6
Q
Outline one study into the duration of STM
A
- Peterson and Peterson
- Participants were given ‘nonsense trigrams’ to remember and a 3 digit number
- Ppts had to recall the trigram after a retention interval of 3,6,9,12,15,or 18 seconds
- During the retention interval the ppts had to count backwards from their 3 digit number
- After only 3 secs, 80% recalled, after 18 secs, fewer than 10% recalled
- Recall got progressively worse as the delay grew longer
7
Q
Outline one study into the duration of LTM
A
- Bahrick et al
- 392 17-74 year olds
- Recall was tested using year books
1. Photo recognition task - 90% accuracy if graduated within 15 yrs vs 70% if within 48 yrs
2. Free recall task
-60% acc 15 years vs 30% acc 48 years - Suggests that LTM can potentially last a lifetime
8
Q
Draw the multistore model of memory
A
Env. stimuli
|
Sensory memory
Iconic, Echoic, Other
|
| Attention
|
STM
| \ Decay, displacement
|
MR | Rehearsal / retrieval ^
|
LTM
\ Interference retrieval failure
MR= Maintenance rehearsal
9
Q
What are the two processes by which info is moved though the model
A
Attention, rehearsal
10
Q
Describe the multi store model
A
- Memory is made up of 3 unitary stores (sensory, LT, ST)
- Memories are formed sequentially and information passes in a linear fashion
- Info enters sensory via senses
- Info that is attended to is passed to STM
- Rehearsed is transferred to the LTM
- Forgetting can occur at any stage
11
Q
Describe the primacy and recency effect in relation to the multistore model of memory
A
- Items at the start of the list are more likely to be rehearsed and transferred to the LTM
- Items at the end are still in the STM at the time of recall
- Items in the middle are forgotten
12
Q
Who first proposed the idea of different types of LTM and why
A
- Tulving realised that the LTM proposed up to that point was too simplistic and inflexible
- Proposed 3 times
13
Q
Name the 3 different types of LTM
A
Episodic, semantic, procedural
14
Q
Describe the nature of semantic memory
A
- Also a type of explicit memory, which includes memory for knowledge, facts, concepts and meaning e.g. knowing London is the capital
- Not time-stamped and not closely associated with a particular event
15
Q
Describe the nature of episodic memory
A
- Our memory from personal experiences and events from our lives e.g most recent visit to the dentist
- Highly complex memories
- Timestamped
- Require a conscious effort to retrieve
16
Q
Describe the nature of procedural memory
A
- Our memories for actions, skills e.g. walking, eating
- Without conscious awareness
- Not timestamped
- We would find it hard to explain these skills to others
17
Q
Name the 4 components of the working memory model
A
The central executive, the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the episodic buffer
18
Q
Draw the working memory model
A
Central executive
/ | \
PL – EB — VSS
|
LTM
19
Q
Describe the function of the central executive
A
- Monitors incoming info
- Direct attention to tasks
- Task allocation
- Problem solving and reasoning
20
Q
Describe the function of the phonological loop
A
- Deals with auditory information and preserves word order
- Baddeley further subdivided it
- The phonological store is for words you hear
- Articulatory process is for maintenance rehearsal
21
Q
Describe the function of the visuospatial sketchpad
A
- Visuo and/ or spatial information
- Logie suggested subdivision
- Visuo - cache store
- Inner scribe for spatial relations
22
Q
Describe the function of the episodic buffer
A
- Baddeley wanted a more general store
- Slave systems deal with specific types of info
- Buffer extra storage system with limited capacity
- Integrates info from all other areas
23
Q
What is meant by interference in relation to forgetting
A
- Forgetting is caused by competing memories
- Either because existing memories interfere with the learning of new information or because new info interferes with previously learnt info
24
Q
Referring to an example, what is meant by retroactive interference
A
New memories disrupt old ones e.g. forgetting an old phone number after learning a new one
25
Referring to an example, what is meant by proactive interference
Old info / memories disrupt new ones e.b. teacher calling new student by old students name
26
Outline 1 piece of research that investigated the effects of similarity on interference
- Interference is worse when the information being recalled is similar
- McGeoch and McDonald
- Changed the amount of similarity between 2 sets of material
- Ppts had to learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
- They then had to learn 1 of 6 new sets of words
- Interference appears to be strongest when material is most similar
27
Briefly describe what is meant by retrieval failure
- Forgetting occurs due to a lack of sufficient cues
- Cues are stored at the same time as the memory
28
What is meant by cues in relation to retrieval failure
- If these cues are not available at the time of recall, if may appear as if you have forgotten the info
- Info is in fact still there, but we cant access them due to retrieval failure
29
Outline the encoding specificity principle
- Tulving and Thomson
- Memory is the most effective when information that was present at the time of coding is also present at the time of retrieval
- If cues that were present at the time of encoding are not present at the time of retrieval forgetting will occur
- Cues can be meaningful or may be indirectly linked by being coded at the time of learning
- Internal or external cues
30
Describe state dependent forgetting as a type of retrieval failure with examples
When the emotional state that an individual is in serves as an aid to memory recall, there is a risk that state dependent forgetting will occur when the same psychological state is not experienced. e.g. alcohol intoxication and the absence of accurate memories when sober
31
Describe context dependent forgetting as a type of retrieval failure with examples
Recall depends on external cues such as the weather, location, sights etc.
32
Outline one study that investigated context dependent forgetting
- Goddon and Baddeley studied deep sea divers, asking participants to learn and recall words on land and underwater.
- Learn on land, recall on land
Learn on land, recall underwater
Learn underwater, recall on land
Learn underwater, recall underwater
- Found that accurate recall was 40% lower in the non matching conditions
- Concluded that recall was lower due to the cues available at the time of learning being different to those at recall
33
Explain what is meant by the term misleading information
- Incorrect information given to a witness, usually after the event
- It can take many forms, such as leading questions or post event discussion
34
Explain what is meant by the term leading questions
- Questions that are phrased in such a way that they imply / lead us to a specific answer
- Investigated by Loftus and Palmer
35
Briefly outline research by Loftus and Palmer into leading questions as a factor affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
- 45 American students
- All of the ppts watched a video of a car crash and were asked a specific question about the speed of the cars
- Manipulated the verb used e.g. "How fast were the cars going when they smashed/ collided/ bumped"
- The estimated speed was affected by the verb used e.g. smashed av speed 40.5mph but contracted 31.8mph
- Shows that the eyewitness testimony accuracy is affected by leading questions
36
Outline 2 explanations for why leading questions are thought to affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
1. Response bias
The question affects our answer but leaves the memory in tact
2. Substitution bias
The question alters our memory
"Did you see any broken glass?"
37
Briefly outline 1 study that has investigated post event discussions as a factor affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
- Gabbert et al gave participants pairs a video of a crime to watch
- Both partners saw the crime from different angles
- Afterwards ppts were allowed to discuss the clip and the research found that 71% of ppts recalled events that they had not seen
38
Identify and describe 2 reasons for the effect of post event discussion on EWT?
1. Memory contamination
Memories become altered or distorted because they combine info from other witnesses with their own memories
2. Memory conformity
Witnesses go along with each other to win social approval or because they think the others are right
39
Outline research by Johnson and Scott into the effects of anxiety on EWT
- Ppts heard arguments in the next room, whilst seated in the waiting area
- All ppts were in either a low or high anxiety condition
- Recall was worse in the high anxiety condition
- Low - 49% High - 33%
- Due to people focusing on the weapon not face of individual
40
Outline research by Yuille and Cutshall into the effectiveness of anxiety on EWT
- Effect of anxiety on a real - life shooting, in which one person was killed and another seriously wounded
- 21 witnesses originally interviewed by investigating police and 13 witnesses age 15 to 32, agreed to take part in follow-up research interview, 4 to 5 months later, which was then compared to the original statement. The witnesses were also asked how stressed they had felt at the time and other emotions
- Eyewitness accounts accurate 5 months later, and those who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (88% compared to 75%)
- Suggest that anxiety doesn't have a detrimental effect on EWT and real world scenarios may even enhance it
41
Explain why there are times when anxiety has had a positive effect on recall and other times negative
- The Yerkes-Dodson Law looks at the relationship between emotional arousal and performance
- Deffenbacher applied this to EWT, lower levels of anxiety produce lower levels of recall accuracy, however levels of recall accuracy increase with anxiety up to a certain point
42
Name and describe the 4 principles of the cognitive interview
1. Report everything
Reporting of every single detail without editing anything out even if they think it is insignificant
2. Reinstate context
Mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident to make memories accessible through contextual and emotional cues
3. Reverse the order
Interview runs through the events in a different order e.g. reverse
4. Change of perspective
Recall from multiple perspectives, e.g. other witnesses
43
The techniques used in the cognitive interview are closely related to established psychological principles. Explain these 2
1. Retrieval failure
- Forgetting occurs due to the absence of the necessary cues
- CI aims to provide cues to aid recall
2. Schema
- A cognitive framework that helps us to sort and interpret lots of info quickly
- Helps us predict whats going to happen and how to behave based on experience
- CI prevents people from reporting their expectations
44
What is meant by enhanced cognitive interview
- Fisher et al
- Additional elements to focus on social dynamics of the interaction
- E.g. knowing when to establish eye contact and when to relinquish it
- Reducing anxiety, minimising distractions, speaking slowly
Psych
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