1
Q
Describe sexual selection
A
- Type of natural selection
- Shaping traits related to mating and reproduction
- Certain traits evolve and pass down
2
Q
Describe what is meant by Anisogamy
A
- Differences in male and female sex cells
- Males in large quantities, quickly replenished
- Females take lots of energy to produce, limited numbers
- Different strategies for reproductive success
- Leads to inter and intra selection
3
Q
Describe intersexual selection
A
- Individuals select mates based on certain desirable traits
- E.g. resources of protection, parental investment, face symmetry
- The sexy son hypothesis
4
Q
Describe the sexy son hypothesis
A
- Fisher
- Genes we see today are enhanced by reproductive success i.e. tall men - attractive kids mean the gene pool continues
5
Q
Describe intrasexual selection
A
- Male strat
Mate competition - winner mats and pass on characteristics that lead to victory - Physical competition - animals
- Display strength or skill e.g. success, weath
- Physical dismorphism
- Agression, possessiveness
6
Q
Outline self disclosure
A
- The idea that relationship formation is built on trust with another person
- Gradually revealing personal information e.g. thoughts, feelings, experience
7
Q
Describe the social penetration theory
A
- Altman and Taylor
- By gradually revealing emotions and experiences and listening leads to increased trust
- Breadth and depth
Breadth = various facets of a persons life, such as work and hobbies
Depth = details concerning each areas - Onion metaphor
- Reis and Shaver
- When an individual reveals something hopefully the partner responds in a rewarding way leading to greater intimacy
8
Q
Describe some evolutionary factors for the importance of physical attractiveness
A
- Shackelford and Larson found that people with symmetrical faces are rated more attractive (genetic fitness)
- Neotenous features such as widely separated and large eyes, delicate chin, small nose also deemed as attractive
- Trigger a protective instinct, valuable resource for females
9
Q
Describe the halo effect in attraction
A
- We have preconceived ideas about the personality traits that attractive people must have = universally positive
- Dion et al found that attractive people are consistently rated as kind, strong, sociable in comparison = self fulfilling prophecies
10
Q
Describe what is meant by the matching hypothesis
A
- Walster and Walster suggests that we look for partners who are similar to ourselves, rather than choosing the most appealing people
Physical attractiveness, intelligence, personality - People first make a judgement about themselves and then look for someone similar
- Reduces the chance of rejection
11
Q
Describe the “computer dance” by - Walster et al
A
Procedure:
- 752 students
- Rated on physical attractiveness by 4 judges beforehand
- Ppts asked to fill in a questionnaire, supposidly for the purposes of computer paring but actually to rate similarity
- Ppts randomly paired and asked to rate date
Findings:
- More attractive students were favoured as dates over the less attractive ones
- People did not take their own attractiveness into account
Replication:
- Replicated by Bersheid et al, ppts were able to select their own partners from varying degree of attractiveness
- Partners tended to select partners who matched them in physical attractiveness
12
Q
Name all the filter theory’s
A
Social demography, similarity in attitudes and complementarity
13
Q
Describe the social demography filter
A
- Sociodemographic characteristics like physical proximity, level of education, social class
- Increase the chances of meeting in the first place
- See frequently to build relationship
- Similarity gives assurance of moving forward
14
Q
Describe the similarity in attitudes filter
A
- People tend to view others as more attractive if they share the same core beliefs and attitudes e.g. career and family particularly in the early stages
- Byrne notes its important in early stages >18 months
- Self disclosure and intimacy
15
Q
Describe the complementarity filter
A
- Partners having some traits that the other partner lacks and helping others fulfill their needs
- E.g. one partner may enjoy meeting new people whilst another may enjoy being introduced to people
- Complement one another
16
Q
Describe the basics of SET
A
- Thibault and Kelly describe romantic relationships using the economic terminology of profit (rewards) and loss (costs)
- Claim that partners strive to maximise rewards (things like companionship, praise, sex) and minimise costs (stress, arguments, time)
- Notions of rewards and costs are subjective
- Costs also change over time
17
Q
Describe what is meant by comparison levels
A
What do I deserve?
- Previous relationships
- Social norms
- Books films TV
- Change over time
- Linked to self esteem
18
Q
Describe what is meant by comparison level for alternatives
A
Could I do better?
- Wider context
- More profit and less costs
- Duck et al - the clalt we adopt depends on the state of our current relationships
- Satisfying relationship = do not see alternatives
19
Q
Describe equity in relationships
A
- Equity is fairness, equality is sameness
- Overbenefiting = guilt /shame
Underbenefiting = anger / resentfulness/ humiliation - Leads to dissatisfaction / break up
- Walster et al suggests that what matters most is that both partners level of profit is roughly the same
20
Q
Describe some of the possible consequences of inequity
A
- Cognitive change is a change in perception about what is normal
- Behavioural change leads to an increase in effort put in by the underbenefitter
21
Q
Define the term commitment according to the investment model
A
A romantic partners intention or desire to continue a relationship, reflecting a belief that the relationship has a viable long -term future
22
Q
Name the 3 major factors that maintain commitment in relationships
A
Satisfaction level, comparison with alternatives, investment size
23
Q
Define the satisfaction level and explain the influence on commitment
A
Based on CL
- Costs and rewards
Many rewards = satisfying
- Partners are generally satisfied when they get more out of the relationship than they get based on previous relationships
24
Q
Define and explain comparison with alternatives and explain the influence on commitment
A
Based on the CLALT
- Could the needs be better met outside of this relationship
- No relationship
25
Define and explain investment and explain the influence on commitment
CL and CLALT are not enough to explain commitment - every time a relationship costing too much it would end
26
According to the Rusbult investment model there are two types of investment, name and describe these
- Intrinsic invesments:
Anything we directly put into the relationship (money, possessions, energy, emotions, self disclosure)
- Extrinsic investments:
Things that did not previously exist but do now (jointly bought items, mutual friends, children, shared memories)
- Both can be tangible or intangible
27
High levels of commitment in relationships expresses itself in everyday maintenance behaviour; name and describe at least 3 of these behaviours
- Partners do not work on a tit for tat basis -> they promote the relationship (accommodation)
- Put their partners interests first (willingness to sacrifice)
- Forgive transgressions
- Cognitive elements: Partners think about themselves in specific (predictable) ways
- Partners are painted in a (often unrealistically) positive light while alternatives more negatively
28
Name and describe the first stage in Duck's Phase model
- Intrapsychic stage
- Person admits to himself or herself that they are dissatisfied with the relationship, and they spend a lot of time thinking about the reasons for this dissatisfaction and the possible ways forward
- Focuses on a persons internal thought process that occurs before confronting the partner
- Threshold of "I can't stand this anymore"
29
Name and describe the second stage in Duck's Phase model
- Dyadic stage
- Person confronts their partner and voices their dissatisfaction
- Lots of complaints coming from the partner initiating the break up e.g. lack of commitment
- The dissatisfied partner also rethinks the alternatives to their current relationships
- Threshold is "I would be justified in withdrawing"
30
Name and describe the third stage in Duck's Phase model
- Social stage
- If up to this point, the couple generally kept their disagreements private, at the next phase they involve friends / relatives to make their distress public
- Once conflict reaches this stage, it is more difficult for a couple to mend their relationship e.g. friends take sides, intervene -> reconciliation more problematic
- Threshold is "I mean it"
- Leads to dissolution
31
Name and describe the fourth and final stage in Duck's Phase model
- Grave-dressing
- Having left their partner, both sides construct their version of why their relationship broke down
- Involves minimising their faults and maximising their partner's, but at the same time trying to show themselves as trustworthy and loyal in order to attract a new partner
- Closure of previous relationship and readiness to start new one
- Threshold is "its time to start a new life"
32
Describe one difference between face - to - face and virtual relationships in relation to self disclosure
- Self - disclosure tends to happen much faster in online
- One reason for this is the anonymity associated with online relationships; people tend to hold off disclosing personal info in real life for fear of ridicule or rejection
- However, their is much less risk in virtual relationships, so people can share personal experience and thoughts without much of a risk that intimate info will get to people they know
33
Describe the hyper - personal model
- Walther argues that CMC can be more intimate and can involve more self disclosure -> often develop very quickly and, once established, are more intense
- Selective self presentation
-> Idealised
-> Hyperhonest/ hyperdishonest
-> Reinforcement
- Anonymity
-> Also promotes self disclosure
-> Strangers on a train effect (Bargh et al)
-> People don't know you, so you feel less accountable for your behaviour
34
Describe the Reduced Cues Theory
- Sproull and Kiesler suggest that CMC relationships are less effective than F2F because they lack cues that we often depend on
-> Non-verbal communications e.g. physical appearance, tone of voice, facial expressions
- Individuation is the loss of personal identity
-> encourages dis inhibition in relating to others
-> blunt and aggressive communication
- A reluctance to self-disclose
-> you are unlikely to want to initiate a relationship with someone who is impersonal or want to reveal innermost feelings to them
35
The absence of gating is a further theory of virtual relationships. Explain what this means.
- In real life, attraction is greatly influenced by their appearance, mannerisms, and factors such as age and ethnicity, limiting choice of potential partners
- In virtual relationships, 'barriers' are absent; creates more opportunities for shy and less attractive people to develop romantic relationships
- Even when these factors are discovered later, when relationships move from virtual to the face-to-face phase, they rarely decrease an already developed attraction, as a result of the feeling of intimacy brought by more open self-disclosure
- The absence of gating means people establish virtual identities and be more outgoing
36
Identify and describe the first level of parasocial relationships by Giles and Maltby
Entertainment social
- Normal
- Least intense level of worship
- Source of entertainment
37
Identify and describe the second level of parasocial relationships by Giles and Maltby
Intense personal
- Obsessed but sane
- Intermediate level of worship
- Greater personal involvement
38
Identify and describe the third level of parasocial relationships by Giles and Maltby
Borderline pathological
- Delusional and probably dangerous
- Strongest level of worship
- Uncontrollable fantasies
- Stalking
- Spending lots of money
39
Describe the absorbtion addiction model
- McCutcheon et al. linked the three levels of parasocial relationships to the deficiencies they have in their own lives e.g. low self esteem or lacking self fulfilment
- Progression through stages occurs due to finding fulfilment or triggers by a crisis
- Absorbtion: seeking fulfilment motivates for focus on the individual
- Addiction: individuals need to sustain their commitment by feeling a stronger involvement leading to more extreme behaviour or delusions
40
Refering to Bowlby, describe the attachment explanation for parasocial relationships
- Bowlby's theory predicts that individuals who didn't form a strong bond with a primary caregiver in early childhood will try to find an attachment substitute in adulthood (parasocial relationships)
41
Which attachment type is most likely to form parasocial relationships
Insecure resistant due to unfulfilled needs having to be met - without the accompanying rejection, break up and disappointment.
-> Avoidant - prefer to avoid the pain and rejection of a relationship altogether
Psych
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