1
Q
What is an aim?
A
A general statement of what the researcher tends to investigate
2
Q
What is the difference between a directional and non-directional hypothesis?
A
Directional
- A difference in direction is predicted
- Get higher / lower e.g. scores
Non - directional
- Relationship between IV and DV is stated and comparison is being made
3
Q
What does operationalisation mean in the context of variables?
A
Making sure your variables are in a form that can be easily tested
4
Q
Control groups and conditions
A
The group that experiences the manipulation of IV is the experimental group, whereas the group that does not is the control
5
Q
Extraneous vs confounding variables
A
- CV varies systematically with the IV meaning it is related to the IV in some way and it affects everybody in the study e.g. age
- EV does not vary systematically with the IV meaning it is not directly related to the IV, but could still affect the DV e.g. temp of room
6
Q
What are demand characteristics and why they need to be conrolled?
A
- participant reactivity
- If participants work out the aim because they have interpreted certain cues they might change behaviour
- Can invalidate research studies by providing an alternative explanation leading to a threat to the internal and external validity
7
Q
What are investigator effects?
A
- Any unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome
- Expectancy effects and unwanted cues
- Inaccurate results
8
Q
What is randomisation
A
The use of chance wherever possible to reduce the influence of the researcher on the researcher outcome
9
Q
What is standardisation
A
Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants to enforce a level of consistency or uniformity to practices
10
Q
What are participant variables
A
Individual characteristics of participants in an experiment that may influence the results
11
Q
Name and describe three types of experimental design (how participants are distributed across conditions)
A
- Independent groups
One condition experienced by all - Repeated measures
All ppts experience all conditions, you remove ppt variables - Matched pairs
Pairing by common traits e.g. intelligence
12
Q
Explain what is meant by counterbalancing and what its purpose is
A
Method used to deal with extraneous effects caused by order effects that arise when using a repeated measures design
13
Q
Lab experiment
A
- Takes place in a highly controlled environment
- Researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV
- Researcher maintains strict control of the EVs
14
Q
Field environment
A
- IV is still manipulated by the researcher, but in natural, everyday setting
15
Q
Natural experiment
A
- The change in IV is not brought about by the researcher
- It would have happened whether or not the researcher had been there
- Researcher records the effect on the DV
16
Q
Quasi Experiment
A
- IV is based on existing difference between variables
Noone has manipulated this - Age gender MH condition
17
Q
Population
A
- A group of people who are the focus of the researchers interest from which a smaller sample is drawn
18
Q
Sample
A
- A group selected from a larger population
- Should represent accurate reflection of target population
19
Q
Generalisation
A
The application of the results from the study to the larger population of which their sample was apart
20
Q
Bias
A
- Where certain groups may be over for under-represented within the sample selected
- E.g too many younger people
- Limits the extent to which generalisations can be made to the target population
21
Q
Opportunity sampling
A
Asking whoever is around at the time of the study e.g. on the street
22
Q
Random sampling
A
Sophisticated, all members of the target pop have an equal selection chance
23
Q
Volunteer
A
Ppts selecting themselves to be part of the sample
24
Q
Systematic
A
When every nth member of the target population is selected
25
Stratified
The composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain sub-groups (strata) within a target population
26
Ethical issues
Protecting the rights, dignity and wellbeing of participants
27
Informed consent
Ppts should know what they're getting in to - e.g. aims, procedures, their rights
28
Deception
Deliberately misleading or withholding information from ppts at any stage of the investigation
29
Protection from harm (physical and psychological)
Ppts should leave your study in the same state state as when they arrived
30
The right to withdraw
They must be told that they have this at any point, and should be given contact details so they can withdraw retrospectively
31
Confidentiality and privacy
Privacy refers to the right to control information about themselves including geographical location. If this cant be guaranteed then confidentiality must be insured i.e. personal data must be protected
32
Ways of giving consent
- Consent letter or form detailing all relevant info that might affect their decisions to participate, signed letter or parental sign if under 16
- Presumptive consent is asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such study, if yes then presume the sample would
- Prior general consent is asking the participants to give their permission to take part in a number of different studies including one that involves deception
33
Ways of dealing with deception
- Deception maintains the integrity of the study e.g. behaviour change which impacts validity
- Debrief
- What the data is for
- Right to withdraw
- Counselling
34
Pilot study
A small-scale version of an investigation that takes place before the real investigation is conducted.
35
Observations
- Provide psycholgists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them
- Allows the researcher the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables
36
Naturalistic and controlled observations
- Naturalistic take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour would usually occur, all aspects of the environment are free to vary
- Controlled has some control over the variables, including manipulating variables, e.g. strange situation
37
Covert and overt observations
- Covert = participants are unaware they are the focus of the study and their behaviour is observed in secret
- Overt = participants know their behaviour is being observed and have been given informed consent beforehand
38
Participant and non-participant observations
- Participant = sometimes it may be necessary for the observer to become part of the group they are studying
- Non participant = researcher remains seperate from those they are studying and records behaviour is a more objective manner
39
Ways of recording data
Unstructured - rich in detail
Structured - too much going on
40
Behavioural categories
- Target behaviours to be studied should be precisely defined and made observable and measured
- E.g. affection can be broken down to hugging, kissing, smiling, holding hands etc.
- Before the observation
41
Sampling methods
- Events sampling = counting the number of times a particular behaviour occurs
- Time sampling = recording behaviour within a pre-established time frame
42
Inter - observer reliability
- At least 2 observers to prevent bias
- Check for consistency
Done by:
1. Observers familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories to be used
2. Observe the same behaviour at the same time e.g. pilot study
3. Compare the data they have recorded
4. Calculate by correlating observations
43
Self-reporting techniques
Any method in which a person is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviours
44
Questionnaires
- A written set of questions
- Open = qualitative
- Closed questions = quantitative
45
Interviews
- A live encounter
- Structured are predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order
- Unstructured is more like a conversation (no set) but a general aim that a topic will discuss
46
Likert scale
Respondent indicates their agreement with a statement using scale
47
Rating scale
Respondent identifies a value that represents their view
48
Fixed- choice option
Includes a list of possible options
49
Designing interviews
- Interview schedule
- Standardised
- Reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer bias
- Group interviews in a clinical setting
- Confidentiality
50
Three main errors when designing questions
Overuse of jargon, emotive language and leading questions, double-barrelled questions and double negatives
51
Overuse of jargon
Technical terms only familiar to those within a specialised field or area e.g maternal deprivation
52
Emotive language and leading questions
Sometimes a researchers attitude towards a particular topic is clear from the way in which the question is phrased e.g. "Boxing is a barbaric sport and any sane person would want it banned"
53
Double-barrelled questions and double negatives
Two questions in one, difficult for respondents to decipher
54
Correlations vs experiments
- In an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the independent variable in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable
- In a correlation there is no such manipulation of one variable and therefore it is not possible to establish cause and effect between one variable and another
55
Descriptive techniques
The use of graphs, tables and summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets of data.
56
Positive skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
57
Negative skew
A type of frequency distribution in which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on the right.
Psych
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