define introspection
the first systematic, experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking the conscious mind into thoughts, feelings and sensations.
Wundt’s procedure
- used standardised methods, done in a controlled environment.
- pps examined their own thoughts, feelings and sensations to different stimuli.
- he used standardised procedures e.g. all pps told the same instructions and all the stimuli were presented to each pp in the same order
Evaluation of Wundt and Introspection
PEEL+: a strength is that his study has scientific validity. Uses standardised procedures, in a controlled environment so no EVs present. However, some of his methods would be considered unscientific today. e.g. pps recording their own thoughts, feelings and sensations is subjective so not scientific.
PEEL: Wundt provided a major contribution, bringing psychology about a science. Set the foundation for further psychological research and understanding.
Emergence of psychology as a science AO1
Behaviourists: only studied observable behaviour using objective methods and controlled experiments.
Cognitive: they linked the mind to a computer. tested memory using controlled experiments.
Biological: use advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen. e.g. fMRI and EEG.
Evaluation of Emergence of Psychology as a science
PEEL+: a strength is that modern psychology does seem to be scientific. Psychology, like other sciences have the same aim which is to understand, predict and control human behaviour. Many of the approaches use scientific methods such as standardisation and lab studies. However, not all the approaches do use scientific methods. e.g. the humanistic approaches relies on an individual’s subjective experience, whilst the psychodynamic uses case studies. This suggests that perhaps psychology can not yet be considered a science due to many approaches to psychology using non-scientific approaches.
A further limitation is that psychology does not have a paradigm. Kuhn suggests all sciences must have one which is a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all ppl in that subject agree on. However, since psychology has so much internal disagreement, there is no paradigm and so it’s not a science.
Behaviourist Approach AO1
- they only study observable and measurable behaviour.
- all behaviour is learnt through experience.
Pavlov: classical conditioning: this involves learning two associate two stimuli together, leading to responding to both in the same way. Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivating when hearing a bell. Food= unconditioned stimulus which produces an unconditioned response of salivation. Whenever food was presented to the dogs, they heard the sound of a bell. Overtime, the dogs began to salivating when hearing a bell as they associated hearing a bell with food.
Skinner: operant conditioning: behaviour is learnt and maintained through consequences.
Positive reinforcement: receiving a reward for something, increases likelihood of repeating behaviour.
Negative reinforcement: avoids something unpleasant and outcome is positive so increases likelihood of repeating.
Punishment: unpleasant consequence of behaviour so decreases likelihood of behaviour being repeated.
Skinner: rats were in a special skinner box and whenever they activated a lever, they would receive a food pellet. He found that the rats continued to do this behaviour so e.g. of positive reinforcement.
Behaviourist Approach AO3
PEEL+: supporting research from Watson and Raynor. Little Albert case study: they conditioned him to be scared of little white furry objects. Whenever they presented him with a mouse, they made a loud bang noise. After a few times, whenever they showed him the mouse without the noise he would cry. This is because he associated small white furry objects with a loud noise. However, this is a case study and so only done on one person, which means that the findings cannot be generalised to an entire population. Furthermore, it means that nomothetic laws of behaviour cannot be created.
PEEL+: A strength of operant conditioning is that there’s real world application. It has led to the use of token economy systems which is when people in prisons or psychiatric wards are given a token when a desirable behaviour is done. This token can be exchanged for privileges such as a sweet. This reinforces the behaviour due to it’s positive consequence. However, just because it works in prisons does not mean that it will work in the real world. Furthermore, it is unethical to make those in psychiatric wards have to do a rewardable behaviour for a common normality such as watching tv.
what are the assumptions of social learning theory
behaviour is learned from experience. ppl learn through observing and imitating others.
define vicarious reinforcement
imitation of another person’s behaviour will only happen if the behaviour is rewarded.
define mediational processes and what are each one
these are cognitive factors that influence learning and determine whether a response is acquired.
1) attention: the extent at which the behaviour is noticed.
2) retention: the extent at which they remember the behaviour.
3) motor reproduction: the ability of the individual to perform the behaviour.
4) motivation: the will of the individual to perform the behaviour.
what is identification
an individual is more likely to imitate someone if they view them as a role model. Someone becomes a role model when they have similar characteristics to the observer and have a higher status.
Evaluation of SLT
PEEL++: supporting research is Bandura’s study. In his study, he showed that when children watched someone be aggressive to a bobo doll, they are much more likely to also be aggressive than children who observed the adult model acting in a non-aggressive way. In a follow up study, Bandura and Walters found that when children watched adults be rewarded for their aggressive behaviour, they were more likely to display aggressive behaviour than when the adult model was punished. In addition to this, Bandura’s study is a lab study which means it was carried out in a controlled environment. This means that all extraneous variables were controlled, ensuring any aggressive behaviour from the children was genuine. However, due to the highly controlled environments, it does mean that the participants may have been responding to demand characteristics. The children may have picked up on cues from the experimenters, influencing them to behave in a certain way.
PEEL: A strength is RWA in understanding cultural differences. Cultural norms are transmitted through society via people and the media. Different societies transmit different norms, leading to people in different cultures adopting and imitating different behaviours.
Assumptions of the cognitive approach
- internal mental processes must be studied scientifically as these play a key role in our behaviour.
- internal mental processes are private (in the mind) so cannot be observed. Instead cognitive psychologists make inferences about what is happening in one’s mind to cause the behaviour.
define internal mental processes
these are the private operations of the mind that occur between stimulus and response. they include processes such as perception and attention. The cognitive approach assumes that behaviour can only be understood by examining how individuals mentally process information. They are studied indirectly.
Define and explain schema
schema acts as a mental framework to help us interpret incoming information. They are packages of information, developed through experience. It means it doesn’t take us long to decide what to do in a situation. Since schema is based on previous experiences, it does help us to predict the future in situations we’re familiar with.
Theoretical Models
these are flow chart representation of how a specific mental process works. they describe a series of programmed steps e.g. the multi-store model of memory.
Computer models
the idea that computers have input, then processing and then produce an output. Same with humans- input is external stimuli, processing (internal mental processes), output is behaviour.
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
the attempt to scientifically study and identify neurological structures and chemical processes in the brain that are responsible for internal mental processes.
By using recent technological developments e.g. fMRI and PET scans, researchers can observe the neurological basis of internal mental processes.
Evaluation of the cognitive approach
PEEL+: Supporting research. The multi-store model of memory is a theoretical model that shows how information flows through the cognitive system explaining the cognitive process of memory. This provides support that theoretical models can be used to explain how information flows through the mind. This is supported by Glanzer and Cunitz research. They found when asking pps to recall a list of words, there was much better accurate recall for the words at the beginning of the list that had been rehearsed and transferred from STM to LTM. This indicates that the cognitive process of memory functions in the way that the multi-store model predicts, providing evidence for theoretical models and therefore the cognitive approach.
PEEL+: strength is that a scientific approach is taken in cognitive approach. Cognitive psychologists conduct their experiments in highly controlled lab settings with a standardised procedure and a large sample size. This ensures that the study has a high internal validity and all extraneous variables are controlled, producing reliable and objective data. However, although the cognitive approach does use scientific methods, it relies on inferences which could be wrong. This lowers the scientific validity of the study since many of the findings are just guesses from psychologists. In comparison, the behaviourist approach’s findings are much more scientific since they study measurable and observable behaviour ensuring that they’re findings are scientifically valid. This suggests that perhaps other approaches such as the behaviourist approach may be a better way to study behaviour since it uses more scientific methods.
Assumptions of the biological approach
everything physiological is at first biological. To properly understand behaviour, the biological influences on behaviour must be looked at. behaviour should be explained as a result of biological structures and processes.
Influence of genes on behaviour
genotype refers to an individual’s genetic makeup. phenotype refers to the observable characteristics of the individual. every individual has a different genotype which determines the differences in behaviour.
how can twin studies be used in genes
they can be used to see whether a psychological characteristic is due to genes or not. Concordance rates are used to measure to what extent twins share the same characteristic. If the characteristic is genetic, then the concordance rate for monozygotic twins should be 100% and for dizygotic twins it should be lower.
How does neurochemistry affect behaviour
neurochemistry is the action of chemicals in the brain. In the brain, messages are passed from neuron to neuron by neurotransmitters which diffuse across the synapse. If neurochemicals in the brain are imbalanced, it can lead to a change in behaviour, especially since it’s linked with mental illnesses. For example, low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin is associated with OCD, whilst dopamine with schizophrenia.
idea of evolution on affecting behaviour
this refers to the idea of natural selection. Natural selection suggests that any advantageous behaviour determined by genes that increases one’s chance of survival, will be passed onto their offspring.
