Research Methods

Question 1

define reliability

Answer 1

the extent to which a study can be replicated and produce the same results.

Question 2

What are the two ways to assess reliability and describe each one

Answer 2

1) Test-retest: involves giving the same test/. questionnaire to the same group of ppl on different occasions. If the test is reliable, the results would be similar/same. Wait some time between each occasion so can’t remember their answers, but not too long that their characteristics have changed.
2) Inter-observer reliability: involves multiple researchers observing a study so the subjective view of one researcher isn’t the only interpretation. if reliable, two or more observers findings will produce similar results.

Question 3

What is done at the end of a study to see if its reliable

Answer 3

the reliability is measured using correlational analysis. If the correlation coefficient is +0.8 then its reliable.

Question 4

What are the four ways to improve reliability

Answer 4

1) Questionnaires: replace open ended questions with close ended questions.
2) Interviews: use structured interviews e.g. standardised questions. Ensure all pps are asked the same questions in the same order.
3) Experiments: standardised procedures - same conditions for all pps.
4) Observations: operationalise all behavioural categories. The observers should all use the same clear, non-overlapping categories.

Question 5

Define validity

Answer 5

the extent to which an observed effect is genuine.

Question 6

What are the two types of validity

Answer 6

1) Internal validity: whether the effects observed are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not another factor.
2) External validity: the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the research setting.

Question 7

What are the two types of external validity?

Answer 7

1) ecological validity: the extent to which the research findings can be generalised to real-world settings.
2) Temporal validity: the extent to which the findings can be generalised across different historical periods.

Question 8

What are the two ways to assess validity

Answer 8

1) face validity: does the test look as if it’s measuring what the researcher intended to measure.
2) Concurrent validity: this s when they compare the performance with a previously established test of the same topic. If there’s a close agreement (0.8 or higher) between the two tests, then high concurrent validity.

Question 9

What are the 4 ways to improve validity

Answer 9

1) Questionnaires: use a lie scale to check response consistency and reduce social desirability bias. Ensure anonymity so respondents feel comfortable giving truthful answers.
2) Qualitative methods: use triangulation- when multiple sources/ methods are used to check findings. Include direct quotes to include pps own words.
3) Experiments: use a control group, standardised procedures, and single/ double blind procedures.
4) Observations: behavioural categories shouldn’t be too broad, overlapping or ambiguous. Use a covert observation to reduce the effects of demand characteristics.

Question 10

Features of science: objectivity

Answer 10

• scientific research must not allow their personal opinions or biases to affect the data, or influence the behaviour of the pps.
• objectivity eliminates any biases from the researcher’s view. In order for something to be scientific, it must be remain objective.

Question 11

features of science: empirical methods

Answer 11

• this is the scientific process of gathering evidence through direct observation and experience to produce quantitative data.
• can only get data from actually seeing it happen. e.g. the behaviourist approach is considered scientific since it uses empirical methods.

Question 12

features of science: replicability

Answer 12

• this is the extent to which scientific procedures can be repeated by other researchers to produce the same findings.
• it would require a standardised procedure in order for the experiment to be carried out again.

Question 13

features of science: falsifiability

Answer 13

• developed by Popper.
• this is the principle that a theory cannot be considered scientific unless it has the possibility of being found untrue.
  e.g. psychodynamic approach not scientific as can’t be tested, so not falsifiable.
• falsifiability is why a null hypothesis must always be accompanied with an alternative hypothesis.

Question 14

features of science: theory construction

Answer 14

• this is the process of how a theory is set.
• a theory is a set of principles that explains events and/ or behaviours.
• to test a theory, evidence or something measurable is required.

Question 15

features of science: paradigm and paradigm shifts

Answer 15

• developed by Kuhn
• this is an agreed set of assumptions and methods with a scientific discipline.
• a paradigm shift is a significant change in the original theory within a scientific discipline, brought about by new findings.
• Kuhn suggests that psychology cannot be a science since there is no paradigm.

Question 16

what is a lab experiment

Answer 16

this is where the researcher has control over the variables in the study. The experimenter uses standardised procedures and controls environmental factors.
Only the IV should change when the researcher manipulates it in order to see the effects on the DV.

Question 17

Lab experiment evaluation

Answer 17

Strengths: as all the variables are controlled, researchers can be confident that a cause and effect relationship has been established.
High internal validity and can be replicated due to the use of standardised procedures.

Weaknesses: lack external validity as lab setting isn’t like real life so low ecological validity.
Lacks mundane realism as tasks done in studies often not similar to the ones done in real life.
pps are aware they’re being studied so they’re behaviour may change as they respond to DCs.

Question 18

What is a field experiment?

Answer 18

the study is conducted in a real world setting. the IV is changed by the researcher between the different conditions of the experiment and the researcher measures the effects on the DV.

Question 19

Evaluation of field experiments

Answer 19

Strengths: high external validity so pps more likely to behave naturally.
Increased mundane realism as tasks more likely to replicate everyday tasks.
Less likely to respond to DCs.

Weaknesses: lack of control over extraneous variables.
Low internal validity.

Question 20

What is a natural experiment

Answer 20

the levels of the IV have already occurred naturally in the real world and the researcher just measures the change in the DV.
The IV is not changed by the researcher. Other possible variables that could change the DV are not controlled.

Question 21

Evaluation of Natural Experiments

Answer 21

Strengths: allows research into areas that could not have been investigated otherwise due to ethical reasons or cost.
High external validity as the change is happening naturally in real life so changes in behaviour are not affected by DCs.

Weaknesses: researcher has no control over the experiment which means no extraneous variables are controlled.
Cannot be replicated as they’re extremely rare.

Question 22

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 22

this is where pps cannot be randomly allocated to different levels of the IV as the groups already exist e.g. when investigating age or gender.
All variables other than the IV that could affect the DV are controlled. Changes in DV are measured.

Question 23

Evaluation of quasi experiment

Answer 23

Strength: this is the only way to experimentally study these factors that are pre-existing characteristics of the pps.

Weaknesses: there may be other factors related to the levels of the IV that cannot be controlled since they change systematically with the levels of the IV and alter the measurements of the DV: confounding variables.

Question 24

define observation

Answer 24

when the researcher watches and records behaviour as it happens.

Question 25

Controlled observation definition and evaluation

Answer 25

when the researcher controls the situation that the pps experience and record their behaviours. The study is done in a lab which helps to control variables. Strengths: can control extraneous variables. Can be replicated as it uses standardised procedures which means there's high internal validity. Weakness: low external validity.

Question 26

Naturalistic observation definition and evaluation

Answer 26

where pps are observed in their normal environment. Strengths: high realism as pps likely to produce natural behaviour (high external validity). Weakness: uncontrolled extraneous variables so low internal validity.

Question 27

Overt observations definition and evaluation

Answer 27

when the pps can see the researcher and they know they're being observed. Strength: ethical as the pps can give informed consent. Weakness: pps could change their behaviour. Could respond to DCs and behave in the way they think the researcher wants.

Question 28

Covert observations definition and evaluation

Answer 28

pps don't know they're being observed and they can't see the researcher. Strength: more natural behaviour is observed because the pps are responding to DCs. Weakness: unethical as pps haven't given informed consent.

Question 29

Participant observation definition and evaluation

Answer 29

researcher becomes involved with the grp they're studying. Strength: researcher has first-hand knowledge of the pp's situation. Can build a relationship with the pp who may open up to them. Weakness: researcher could lose objectivity and may become bias.

Question 30

Non-participant observations definition and evaluation

Answer 30

when the observer/ researcher remains outside the group that they're studying. Strength: the researcher maintains an objective psychological distance from their pps. Weakness: may lose valuable insight as they are too far from those they're studying.

Question 31

Evaluation of random sampling

Answer 31

Strength: unbiased and so increases internal validity Weaknesses: time consuming and difficult to conduct. Hard to obtain a full list of the whole target population.

Question 32

what is random sampling and how does it work?

Answer 32

when all members of population have an equal chance of being selected. 1) obtain a full list of all the members of the population. 2) number all the names. 3) use a lottery method such as a random number generator to pick the numbers.

Question 33

What is systematic sampling and steps

Answer 33

where every nth member of the target population is selected. 1) a sampling frame is produced e.g. every member is organised into alphabetical order. 2) a sampling system is picked e.g. every 5th person on the list. The researcher may begin from a random number to reduce bias. 3) researcher works through the sampling frame until the sample is done.

Question 34

evaluation of systematic sampling

Answer 34

Strength: it's objective so once the system for selection is chosen, the researcher has no more choice in who's selected. Weaknesses: time-consuming, pps may refuse to take part leading to a volunteer sample.

Question 35

What is stratified sampling and steps

Answer 35

the make-up of the sample corresponds to the proportions of people in different strata of the population being studied. 1) The researcher identified the different strata that make up the population. 2) The proportions needed for the sample to be representative is found. 3) The pps that make up each strata are picked by random sampling.

Question 36

Evaluation of stratified sampling

Answer 36

Strength: it creates a representative sample as it accurately corresponds to the composition of the population. This means generalisations are possible. Weakness: Identified strata can't reflect all the ways people are different and so cannot completely represent the whole population.

Question 37

what is opportunity sampling

Answer 37

when the researcher selects anyone who happens to be available and happy to participate.

Question 38

Evaluation of opportunity sampling

Answer 38

Strengths: less time-consuming and costs less as doesn't need to create a list or split the population into strata. It's easier for the researcher. Weaknesses: unrepresentative of the target population as drawn from a specific area so the findings are not generalisable. There may be researcher bias as the researcher has complete control over whose picked.

Question 39

What is volunteer sampling

Answer 39

pps select themselves to be part of the study.

Question 40

Evaluation of volunteer sampling

Answer 40

Strengths: it's easy and little effort is required from the researcher so less time consuming. Weakness: may attract specific people so not generalisable.

Question 41

Ethical issue 1: Informed Consent

Answer 41

this involves making the pps aware of the aims of the research, the procedure, and their rights. Pps should be told they have a right to withdraw at any point from the study. The pps should also be told what the data will be used for.

Question 42

How to deal with informed consent

Answer 42

the pps should be given a consent letter with all the relevant information. It must be signed and if they're under 16 then parental consent must be given.

Question 43

Ethical issue 2: Deception

Answer 43

this is when the researcher deliberately misleads or withholds information from the pps throughout the experiment.

Question 44

Ethical issue 3: protection from harm

Answer 44

pps should not be placed at any additional physical or psychological harm to what they would normally experience in everyday life. The pps should be reminded that they can withdraw at any moment.

Question 45

How to deal with informed consent and protection from harm

Answer 45

pps should be given a full debrief at the end where they are told the true aims of the study and any details they weren't originally told. They should be told what their data will be used for and have the right to withhold their data. Should be reassured that their behaviour was normal and counselling should be provided if required.

Question 46

Ethical issue 4: Privacy and Confidentiality

Answer 46

right of privacy: having the right to withhold information about themselves. Right of confidentiality: the right to have personal data protected e.g. name and date of birth.

Question 47

Dealing with privacy and confidentiality

Answer 47

personal details must be protected. Pps must be reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process.

Question 48

What are pilot studies

Answer 48

these are small-scale runs of an investigation. It involves a few pps to check whether the investigation runs well. This allows the researchers to identify any issues and change the procedure to make sure it runs smoothly when it's properly carried out. It results in saving time and money.

Question 49

What is a single-blind procedure

Answer 49

when any information that will create expectations and change the participant's behaviour are withheld until the end of the experiment. e.g. pps are not told the aims of the study, and perhaps not told about other groups also participating.

Question 50

Define Type I error

Answer 50

When the null hypothesis is accidentally rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accidentally accepted. This is more likely to occur when the significant level is too high e.g. 0.1 instead of 0.05.

Question 51

Define Type II error

Answer 51

This is when the null hypothesis is accidentally accepted and the alternative hypothesis is accidentally rejected.

Question 52

Define meta-analysis

Answer 52

the process where researchers collect and collate a wide range of previously conducted research on a specific area. The collated research is reviewed together. The combined data is often statistically tested to provide an overall conclusion.

Question 53

What are the two ways to record data (in observations) and explain each one

Answer 53

Unstructured Observation: where the researcher writes down everything that they observe. It produces information rich with detail. Best used when the observations are small and involve a few pps. Structured Observations: the observer uses behavioural categories and watches out for specific behaviours.

Question 54

Evaluation of structured and unstructured observations

Answer 54

Structured strength: most likely to produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse. Structured weakness: produces less rich in detail data. Unstructured strength: have rich and in depth detail of the data. Unstructured weaknesses: produces qualitative data which is harder to analyse. Greater risk of observer bias as no objective behavioural categories.

Question 55

Define behavioural categories

Answer 55

Behavioural categories are observable and measurable behaviours that the researcher can look out for during the observation and record if the behaviour is seen. The researcher should break up the target behaviour into behavioural categories.

Question 56

Evaluation of Behavioural Categories

Answer 56

- They make the data more structured and objective. - The categories must be clear - should be observable and measurable. - All the different forms of the target behaviour must be included in the behavioural categories.

Question 57

What are the two sampling methods and define them

Answer 57

Event sampling: the researcher records every time an event occurs. Time sampling: the researcher records the behaviour of the participants within a pre-established time frame e.g. every 30 seconds.

Question 58

Evaluation of sampling methods

Answer 58

Event Sampling Strength: useful when the target behaviour happens infrequently and so would otherwise be missed. Event Sampling Weakness: if the event is too complex, the observer may ignore important details. Time Sampling Strength: reduces the number of observations needed. Time Sampling Weakness: it may not be representative of the entire observation as not the entire event is observed. May miss key behaviours that occur not in the time-frame.

Question 59

Define concurrent validity

Answer 59

this is how well a new test matches an established, trusted test when both are taken at the same time. If there is a correlation of 0.8 or higher, then there's a high concurrent validity.

Question 60

What is content analysis

Answer 60

This is used to analyse media by going through the media e.g. interview and obtaining data. The data is then transformed into data that can be analysed. The purpose of content analysis to analyse the content of the media.

Question 61

What are coding units

Answer 61

They are the same as behavioural categories but when doing content analysis they're called coding units. Coding units are a way to categorise the information into meaningful units e.g. counting the number of times a particular phrase appears in an interview. Coding produces quantitative data as each time the category appears it's tallied.

Question 62

What is thematic analysis

Answer 62

it's a type of content analysis but instead it produces qualitative data. It involves identifying any themes, implicit or explicit, that are recurrent within the data.

Question 63

Evaluation of content analysis

Answer 63

Strengths: It's ethical as the data is already existing within the public knowledge which means there's no issue with obtaining permission. High external validity as it's real world data - high ecological validity. Limitations: May result in the subjectivity of the observer who may offer their own personal opinion. Risk of culture bias of the observer.