Bird 3 Flashcards

Question

Fatty liver/Haemorrhage Syndrome signs, lesions, causes and control

Answer 1

○ Signs § Spontaneous mortalities often in obese hens with lower egg production ○ Lesions § Obese carcass, globules of fat in peritoneum, large pale friable liver, intrahepatic haemorrhages ○ Aetiology § High-energy diet § Little exercise § Warm condition § Low production ○ Control Provide balance energy level diet - ensure not overweight

Answer 2

○ Aspergillus spp ○ Interspecies variation § Ducks and turkeys have high sensitivity showing acute hepatic necrosis and high mortality § Domestic fowl have lower sensitivity showing chronic hepatitis and low mortality ○ Generally due to moisture and heating/cooling of feed in silo ○ Signs § Reduced growth rate, poor productivity and ascites

Answer 3

``` □ Cause -> Salmonella, E. coli, Pasteurella ® Often cause septicaemic conditions □ Lesions ® Pale liver, congested ® Multifocal necrosis ® Fibrosis ® Patchy discolouration ```

Answer 4

1. inclusion body hepatitis 2. pscittacine adenoviral hepatitis 3. pacheco's disease 4. herpesviruses of pigeons 5. duck viral hepatitis 6. big liver and spleen disease 7. hepatitis-splenomegaly syndrome

Answer 5

□ Common in young chickens usually 2-6 weeks old □ Cause - one of the 12 fowl adenoviruses ® 3 groups that cause this in different species with 12 serotypes □ Acute onset of mortality occurring over a period of 3 to 4 days (spiking mortality) ® After spiking mortality then goes away generally Different strains cause different mortality rates

Answer 6

□ Lesions ® Swollen liver with multiple pale haemorrahgic foci □ Diagnosis ® Histopathological demonstration of liver with presence of inclusion bodies ® PCR is now available - using high resolution melt (HRM) □ Treatment ® No treatment although supportive therapy may assist in recovery ® Live vaccine in Australia given to parents -> provide maternal antibodies } Given the bird the virus but going to die soon anyway } Don't have a vaccine for all the strain ® Killed virus in other countries

Answer 7

□ Caused by herpes virus in psittacine birds □ Exotic disease to Australia □ Signs ® High mortality, diarrhoea, biliverdinuria, tremors/convulsions □ Lesions Hepatic swelling, haemorrhage and necrosis

Answer 8

□ Caused by Histomonas meleagridis ® Lives in caecal tubes and migrates to viscera such as the liver ® Fragile organism which doesn't survive in environment □ Transmission ® Carrier bird often domestic fowl ® Between birds via caecal worm Heterakis gallinarum by eating the eggs of this worm

Answer 9

``` □ Treatment ® Dimetridazole -> cannot use in birds used for human consumption ® Removal of birds from source of infection □ Control ® Control Heterakis (the carrier worm) ® Control earthworms ® Regular medication Concrete/wire floor ```

Answer 10

- Ataxia - Paresis - Paralysis - Seizures - Tremors - Circling - Head tilt - Nystagmus - Abnormal mentation

Answer 11

``` Brain - Cranial trauma - Nutritional deficiencies - Toxicities - Encephalitides ○ Viral, bacterial, mycotic, parasitic Spinal cord and peripheral nerves - Cord compression syndromes - Nutritional deficiencies - Toxins ```

Answer 12

- Caused by panic/hysteria resulting in birds colliding with windows, glass wall - Can be associated with infarction (acute stroke) ○ Atherosclerosis, yok embolism - Clinical signs ○ Blood in mouth, ear and eye ○ Signs of depression - head tilt, circling, paresis ○ Sudden death

Answer 13

``` - Lesions ○ Areas of haemorrhaging within the cerebrum -> subcutaneous and tissue ○ Malasia -> softening of the brain - Treatment ○ Supportive treatment ○ Corticosteroids thought to help ```

Answer 14

1) vitamin E deficiency induced encephalomalacia | 2) thiamine deficiency (vitamin B1)

Answer 15

○ Not that common anymore due to cheap Vit E supplements ○ "crazy chick disease" and often affects young growing chickens § Not before 2 weeks as Vitamin E from yolk sac ○ Clinical signs § As neurological signs ○ Lesions § Swollen cerebellum, petechial and larger haemorrhages in cerebrum ○ Treatment § Required vit E supplementation

Answer 16

○ Often in pet birds or wild in rehabilitation centres if feed inappropriate diet ○ EG - magpies fed "butchers mince" ○ Clinical signs § Walking backwards, head tilt to the ceiling (opisthotonus) "star grazing", can fall backwards ○ Treatment § Highly responsive to thiamine medication -> infection or supplementation in water/diet

Answer 17

1. Thiamine deficiency 2. Aspergillosis - common 3. Salmonellosis 4. Entrococcosis 5. Avian Encephalomyelitis

Answer 18

1) viral 1. infectious avian encephalomyelitis 2. newcastle disease 3. polymavirus 4. arbovirus infections 2) bacterial 1. salmonella 2. enterococcus 3. pasterurella 3) mycotic 1. aspergillosis 2. dactylariosis 4) parasitic

Answer 19

○ Cause – Picornaviridae - Hepatovirus ○ Transmission § Infected chicks -> horizontal infection of “litter mates” § Non-immune hens infected during lay -> egg -> transmission -> vertically

Answer 20

○ Eastern equine encephalitis ○ Western equine encephalitis ○ Highlands J virus ○ Israel Turkey meningoencephalitis ○ Murray Valley Encephalitis - in Australia ○ Kunjin virus - in Australia - septic virus, related to west Nile virus ○ West Nile virus infection

Answer 21

§ Flavivirus infecting wild, zoo birds, horses and humans § Clinical signs □ Reluctant to walk, show incoordination "dropping off the sky", ataxia, torticollis, § Transmission □ Mosquitos transmit from birds to other birds, as well as birds to horses and humans ® Horses and humans are dead-end hosts ® ZOONOTIC -> humans can get encephalitides

Answer 22

1. Insecticides 2. Medications ○ Coccidiostats § Wrong dose § Wrong species § Wrong combination ○ Dimetridazole - low margin of safety ○ Nitrofurazone

Answer 23

1) developmental abnormalities - congenital scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis 2) spondylolisthesis (kinky back) 3) trauma 4) tumours

Answer 24

○ Caused by subluxation of 4th thoracic vertebrae (only free vertebrae of the birds) -> compression of the spinal cord ○ Clinical signs § Unable to walk, generally sit on their breast and flap their wings to try to move ○ Diagnosis § Post mortem - cut along the vertebral column to determine where the compression occurs

Answer 25

○ Fractures of the vertebrae -> occur often at thoraco-lumbar junction ○ Severe osteoporosis ○ Severe haemorrhaging within or outside the spina cord ○ Osteomyelitis -> Pasteurella, strep, staphylococcus ○ Clinical signs - Similar to kinky back ○ Diagnosis - Same as kinky back

Answer 26

1. Markes disease - as described previously 2. Renal carcinomas - budgies, are common aged 3-5 years § Generally doesn't affect renal issues straight away -> lameness or paralysis § Clinical signs □ Perching with one leg and curling of the other foot

Answer 27

- Riboflavine (vitamin B2) deficiency (curls toe paralysis) ○ Paralysis of the toes ○ Occurs in young birds

Answer 28

Botulism - Cause - clostridium botulinum type C ○ Normal inhabitant of gastro-intestinal tract and environment ○ Usually exogenous origin - Clinical signs ○ From legs to wings -> up towards the head and neck -> ascending paralysis - opposite to horse § "limberneck" -> end stage where the neck is flaccid

Answer 29

○ During drought conditions with access to waterfowl = rotting vegetation § Invertebrates accumulate significant amounts of toxin -> birds then eat and die § Maggots and other insects may grow in decaying carcasses, concentrate toxin, eaten by other birds which result in many more birds being affected ○ In poultry farms - failure to remove bird carcasses from shed environment can result in cannibalism of them by other birds ○ Endogenous origin -> GIT stasis or other changed internal environment allowing overgrow of clostridium botulinum within the gut

Answer 30

○ Evidence of ingested maggots other invertebrates or carcass material ○ No gross or microscopic lesions present ○ Demonstration of toxin in intestinal contents, blood or other tissues which have been dead -> NOT DIAGNOSTICALLY USEFUL for living

Answer 31

- Treatment ○ Flushing GIT with clean water and other GIT stimulation ○ Antibiotics assist suppression of endogenous toxin production ○ Specific antitoxin may be administered ○ Supportive treatment - Control ○ Ensure prompt and thorough removal of carcasses of dead birds from the area Removal of unaffected birds from the affected swap/lake may be possible in some situations

Answer 32

- light in weight - pneumatic bones that communicate with respiratory system - humerus - medullary bone in egg-laying birds as a labile reservoir for the supply of eggshell calcium - a prominent sternum (keel bone), ulnar larger than radius - fusion of anterior thoracic vertebrae (T1 – T3) to form notarium, a free T4, and fusion of the remaining thoracic, lumbar, sacral and first two coccygeal vertebrae to form synsacrum

Answer 33

1) twisted-leg syndrone, Valgus (outward), varus (inward) 2) dyschondroplasia (tibia dyschondroplasia) 3) osteodystrophy (rickets, soft bone syndrome) 4) chondrodystrophy 5) osteoporosis 6) fracture 7) osteomyelitis

Answer 34

- Commonly affects broiler chickens and other rapidly growing birds - ostrich - Cause -> due or exacerbated by marginal deficiencies of key nutrients - Lesions -> distally rotated of tibiotarsus and condyle larger ○ Angular or rotational causes ○ Gastrocnemius tendon can become displaced leading to more pronounced rotation and lameness - Deviated toe - Medial or lateral deviation of the toes -> Commonly affected broilers - Genetic and environmental factors

Answer 35

- Presents with a mass of avascular cartilage as cone-shape extending from epiphysis into diaphysis of affected bones ○ Results in bone weakness, pathological fracture and possible twisted leg ○ Most common in distal end of tibiotarsus - Inherited predisposition exacerbated by other factors: ○ promoting rapid growth ○ Calcium/phosphorus ratio in feed ○ Previous rickets ○ Acid/base imbalance ○ Mycotoxicosis

Answer 36

- Failure in mineralisation of the bone results in weak, pliable bones - Cause -> deficiency of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D and/or calcium/phosphorus imbalance ○ Chicks - 1% calcium, Layer birds - need at least 4% calcium Layer birds store calcium within their medullary bone - femur

Answer 37

- Clinical signs -> soft pliable maxilla (beck), S-shaped curvature of kneel bonw, bowed legs, thickening of ends of long bones especially tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus, parathyroid enlarged - Lesions -> thickened growth plate (may not be obvious) - Radiology -> of the bone

Answer 38

- Abnormal growth of cartilage on one side of physis and/in physis of one of a pair of bones results in angulation of bone/limb - Causes ○ Mycoplasma infections § M. meleagridis (affects turkeys only - not chickens) § M. iowae - exotic -> turkeys and possible chickens § M. gallisepticum? ○ Nutritional deficiencies § Manganese § Choline, niacin, folic acid

Answer 39

- Associated with thin bones may lead to pathological fractures -> caught in wire, bird handling ○ Can involve both cortical and medullary bones § Cortical bone provides strength while medullary bone is laid down - acts as a source of calcium -> if medullary bone is exhausted due to high production and dietary supply lead to loss of cortical bone to provide the calcium -> lead to clinical signs

Answer 40

- Cause -> vitamin D deficiencies or Calcium:phorphorus ratio, lack of exercise - Clinical signs ○ Fractures and callus formations ○ Lameness ○ Paralysis ○ Poor egg shell -> hold egg against light, if see lots of pores -> not good quality ○ Deviated sternum

Answer 41

○ Traumatic § Treat with splinting for simple fractures ○ Pathological § Osteoporosis § External pressure -> rings on birds legs § Dyschondroplasia § Tumours -> osteopetrosis, osteoma, osteosarcoma, chondroma - not common § Osteomyelitis

Answer 42

- Inflammation of bone - Causes ○ Staphylococcus, E.coli, Salmonella, Mycobacterium avium and other bacterial infections - Generally haematogenous origin -> localisation frequently at the growth plate ○ Lesions may spread along growth plate into joints -> arthritis or synovitis (enlargement of joint with increased viscosity of fluid) § Exudate from the joint -> smear, stain culture and coagulase test for bacteria identification □ Different exudate colour and consistency does not identify the bacteria - Lesions in femur are frequently found in head/neck of femur (femoral head degeneration/necrosis)

Answer 43

``` Joint 1) gout 2) arthritis/synovitis Muscles 1) tenosynovitis 2) ruptured tendon syndrome 3) nutritional myopathy 4) deep pectoral myopathy 5) extertional/capture myopathy ```

Answer 44

- Accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joint/synovial sheaths resulting in swelling and lameness - Causes ○ Chronic renal failure -> exacerbated by high protein diet ○ Idiopathic -> genetic predisposition suspected - Diagnosis ○ Post-mortem -> can see uric acid crystals in the joints ○ Arthrocentesis -> pus like accumulation of uric acid crystals visible on microscopic examination

Answer 45

- Lameness, reluctance to walk, enlargement of the joints - Causes ○ Viral -> caused by reovirus especially in broiler chickens ○ Bacterial -> all bacteria involved in osteomyelitis, can spread from osteomyelitis or haematogenously - Diagnosis ○ Staining of the smears ○ Conventional culture ○ PCR - for viral causes

Answer 46

- Spontaneous, uni or bi-lateral rupture of gastrocnemius tendon immediately above the hock joint - More commonly in broiler chickens - Clinical signs ○ Extremely painful -> perches on the edge of the table to relieve the hock joint ○ Acute lesions -> haemorrhage under skin ○ Chronic lesions -> green discolouration in sub cutis - Causes ○ Tenosynovitis, tendon structure, nutritional factors, spontaneous, management? - Treatment ○ Management -> increasing feeding space, decreased density -> seems to work

Answer 47

Nutritional Myopathy - Condition can be caused by deficiency of Vitamin E and/or selenium Exertional/capture myopathy - Common condition particularly in wild birds following trapping, chasing or transportation Unwilling or unable to fly or walk may appear depressed

Answer 48

Upper respiratory tract -> nostrils, nasal cavity, nasal sinuses, pneumatic bones of skull and conjunctiva Lower respiratory tract -> consists of larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, airsacs and pneumatic bones Trachea -> has complete rings - CANNOT USE INFLATABLE CUFFS - Before bifurcation in the lungs -> flattened are -> syrinx (can be quite prominent depending on species) Some birds - pelicans -> subcutaneous airspaces - normal to feel crackling of skin over these areas

Answer 49

``` - Harder to take nasal swab from nares ○ Cartilage sits within the nasal cavity - Need to take from the choana (palatine cleft) Diseases 1. Rhinitis/conjunctivitis 2. Sinusitis 3. Tracheitis 4. Pneumonia 5. Airsacculitis' ```

Answer 50

``` - Signs ○ Serous discharge from nares results in mating of feathers around eyes and nostrils ○ Congested mucous membranes - red eye ○ Severe case -> closure of the eyes due to puss accumulation - Causes ○ Traumatic - fighting ○ Toxic ○ Infectious • Infectious bronchitis • Infectious laryngotracheitis • Chlamydiosis • Aspergillosis • Mycoplasmosis ```

Answer 51

``` - Inflammation of Infraorbital sinus ○ Not covered by bone -> make incision underneath the eye to get within - Cause ○ Mycoplasmosis - MOST COMMON ○ Fowl coryza - Avibacterium ○ Fowl Cholera - Pasteurella (previous lecture) ○ Various other bacteria Acute vs chronic form ```

Answer 52

○ Signs § Sero-mucoid exudate, swollen face due to distention of sinus (often symmetrical) § Sinuses still compressible - runny pus ○ Diagnosis § Clinical signs, species affected and bacteriology (swab of exudate from choanae) □ Some organisms need fastidious growth requirements - mycoplasma ○ Treatment § Parenteral and/or oral drinking water antibiotics

Answer 53

○ Signs § Caseous exudate in sinus +/- conjunctival sac, swollen sinuses presented as swollen face § Sinuses not compressible (DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN ACUTE AND CHRONIC) -> solid pus ○ Diagnosis § Clinical signs, bacteriology (swab of exudate from choanae) ○ Treatment § Intervene immediately by removing the pus -> doesn't respond to antibiotics □ Surgical debridement in pet birds -> higher valuable birds § In large poultry systems -> remove the severely infected and treat others with antibiotics

Answer 54

``` - Pathogenic Mycoplasmas ○ M. gallisepticum - most important ○ M. synoviae - arthritis ○ M. meleagridis - specific for turkeys - Species affected ○ Chicken, turkey, finch, parrot, ostrich, etc - Economic significance ○ With E. coli and Dust, ammonia and viruses -> leads to chronic respiratory disease ```

Answer 55

- Transmission ○ Vertical and horizontal transmission usually some venereal § Vertical transmission important with breeding stock - NEED TO ENSURE DON'T HAVE ○ Carrier birds - Signs/lesions ○ Conjunctivitis, rhinitis, synovitis ○ Reduced growth rate, egg production and hatchability, glass top eggs (deformities of top of egg) Initially sero-mucoid later caseous - secondary bacterial

Answer 56

- NEED TO ENSURE THEY ARE PATHOLOGENIC MYCOPLASMA a. Need fastidious media to grow them -> specialist laboratory b. Serological tests such as rapid serum agglutination (RSA) test and ELISA are available § Beware of vaccination status c. PCR available as well

Answer 57

- Treatment ○ Antibiotic treatment generally eliminates clinical signs not the infection -> will start shedding again later § Tylosin, tiamulin, tetracycline, lincomycin, enrofloxacin - NOT PENICILLIN □ Beware of registration and withdrawing periods ○ Prevention and control important - Control a. Eradication and quarantine b. Vaccination (MOST POPULAR) and antibiotics on cases § Vaccine is an eyedrop § Not a lot of cases in Australia anymore due to VACCINE (made here in werribee)

Answer 58

- Cause - Avibacterium paragallinarum - Infects domestic fowls ○ Usually adult birds ○ Mainly layers in multi-age farms - Contributing factors ○ Multi-age farms - Rapid spread - via water or air - whole shed within 2 days - Transmission ○ Carrier birds ○ Horizontally and rapid § Airborne § Water

Answer 59

``` - Diagnosis ○ Incision into the sinus -> take swab from there § Place swab in media that is supplemented with NAD □ Gram negative bacilli - Prevention & Control ○ Eradication § Depopulate, disinfect, and leave vacant for 2-3 wk ○ Single age flocks ○ Reduce stresses ○ Vaccination § Killed vaccine § prior to the point of lay ```

Answer 60

``` - Treatment ○Antibiotics § Sulfonamides ± trimethoprim § Tetracyclines § Erythromycin § Enrofloxacin (not available in Australia) ○ Withdrawing period ○ Current Australian regulations § Code of practice Label restrains - NO WAY CAN USE ```

Answer 61

- Only by a registered veterinarian - Professional intervention - Veterinary supervision and care - Off-label use ○ Not when there is a label restraint ○ Must be backed up by scientific data ○ Should be registered at least for another food producing animal in Australia Currently registered antibiotics for laying hens in Australia • CTC, Nil WP • OTC, 7d WP • Amoxycillin 7d WP • Trimethoprim, 14d WP • Sulfonamides, 14d WP • Lincospectin, Nil WP - don't use unless really need to

Answer 62

- None in mild cases - Respiratory rales (gurgling) - Coughing - Breathing with open mouth - Gasping (gaping!) - Breathing with extended neck - Change of voice - Tail bobbing - when perching shouldn't move their tail up and down

Answer 63

1. Infectious bronchitis (IB) 2. Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT) 3. Newcastle disease (ND) 4. Pigeon herpesvirus infection 5. Cryptosporidiosis 6. Parasites 7. Pox

Answer 64

- Cause - A gamma-coronavirus - Variation in Viral antigens ○ Pathogenicity ○ Tissue tropism § Respiratory - small chicks and young birds most affected § Renal § Reproductive □ Laying hen □ Young chicks

Answer 65

○ Mild serous conjunctivitis/rhinitis/tracheitis - URT infection: mild cough/sneeze § Haemorrhages within the trachea (generally from secondary infection) ○ Serious disease - common in Australia, mild URT disease followed by mortality with polyuria § Pale and swollen kidneys ○ Effects on reproductive tract - reduce egg production, abnormal shape eggs, poor quality albumen, poor quality egg shells (wrinkly and rubbery eggs), can affect the oviduct and therefore young chicks may take longer to come into lay

Answer 66

- Transmission ○ Carriers ○ Rapid causing 100% morbidity ○ Horizontal § Fomites , Air born - Diagnosis ○ RT-PCR (RNA virus) - quick and sensitive ○ Serology - ELISA - Treatment ○ No real treatment but helps to warm the environment ○ Electrolytes and use antibiotics to prevent secondary infection from mycoplasma - Prevention ○ Biosecurity - doesn't work so well ○ Vaccination - MOST IMPORTANT WAY TO PREVENT DISEASE § What virus to use as vaccine -> need to identify via particular test § No cross protection so important

Answer 67

- Only in gallinaceous birds - chickens, pheasants - Caused by an alpha-Herpesvirus - Transmission ○ Carrier birds - FOR LIFE ○ Shed in exudates ○ Aerosols, fomites, beetles, etc ○ Long Incubation period (6-12 d) - can vaccinate in the face of outbreak

Answer 68

- Diagnosis ○ Histopathology - merging epithelial cells with intra-nucleus inclusion bodies, heterophils ○ PCR ○ Notifiable disease - Signs ○ Severe form – acute haemorrhagic to necrotizing tracheitis – severe dyspnoea, gasping, open mouth breathing, cough up blood / blood-stained exudate, significant mortality. ○ Mild form – conjunctivitis, rhinitis, tracheitis, reduced production, predisposition to C.R.D.

Answer 69

``` - Prevention ○ Isolation ○ Single-age flock ○ Vaccination § Only in endemic areas § 3 vaccines -> live ones - Prevalence in Australia ○ Increasingly large number of outbreaks in recent times ○ VIC and NSW are particularly affected ○ A wide range of operations are affected ```

Answer 70

- Cause - avulavirus (Paramyxoviridae) - Affects variety of bird species - High mortality and morbidity - Socioeconomic losses - OIE list A ○ An exotic disease to Australia - trade implications

Answer 71

a. Velogenic § High mortality § Nervous system -> partial or complete paralysis and twisting or the neck § Respiratory system - tracheitis, swelling of the face § Enteric - caecal lesions, diarrhoea b. Mesogenic § Variable mortality § Respiratory § Nervous § Reduced egg production, quality (shell, pigment, albumen) § No enteric signs c. Lentogenic § Mild-subclinical respiratory signs § Predisposition for CRD (chronic respiratory disease, like mycoplasma)

Answer 72

``` - NDV in other species ○ Turkeys, duck and geese, psittacine, ratites, pigeons, human § Pigeon paramyxovirus -> own NCD -> present in Victoria - Transmission ○ Direct § Live carrier birds § Poultry products and by-products ○ Indirect § Fomites § Air ```

Answer 73

``` - Diagnosis ○ Differential diagnosis from ILT and AI ○ Take samples and send to primary industry ○ Virus isolation § Virulence determination ○ PCR (and sequencing) ○ Serology - monitoring NOT DIAGNOSIS § HI - Control/prevention - National policy ○ Eradication - no treatment ○ Quarantine and movement control -> via restricted area around the property, control area where blanket vaccination occurs ○ Import restriction ○ Vaccination ```

Answer 74

- Common in canaries, finches, budgies - Clinical signs - slight cough, wheezing, dyspnoea in severe infections - open mouth breathing, fluffed up, stopping singing (one of the first signs - as trachea was severely damaged) - Diagnosis - clinical signs and response to treatment - Treatment - medication with ivermectin - single drop applied to back of neck or within water - Control - involve in elimination of carriers birds or by periodic strategic treatment to keep infection at low level

Answer 75

1. Mycoplasmosis 2. IC 3. Colibacillosis 4. Respiratory mycosis

Answer 76

- Aspergillus fumigatus -> can get from mould in grain - Particularly in the first few days of life -> probably came from the hatchery - Clinical signs ○ Increase mortality (loss of hatchability) - especially in younger birds and in hatcheries ○ Respiratory difficulty - lesions in trachea and lungs and sometimes eye § Ophthalmitis if lesions in the eye ○ Lethargic, off food, loss weight, regurgitate food ○ Abnormal pasture, twisted neck, paresis, paralysis -> if brain affected

Answer 77

``` - Predisposing factors ○ Stress ○ Immunosuppression ○ Other diseases ○ Antibiotics - Diagnosis ○ Radiology ○ PM - nodular lesions § Biopsy - histopathology - Treatment ○ Late stages - just cull - Control ○ Hygiene ○ Cull and isolate the affected birds ○ Ensure mouldy feed aren't around ```

Bird 3 Flashcards

(101 cards)