1
Q
what are the three components of the carbon cycle?
A
- stores
- fluxes
- processes
2
Q
how is carbon stored in the Atmosphere?
A
as carbon dioxide and compounds such as methane
3
Q
how is carbon stored in the Hydrosphere?
A
as dissolved carbon dioxide
4
Q
how is carbon stored in the lithosphere?
A
as carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels (e.g. coal, oil and gas)
5
Q
how is carbon stored in the biosphere?
A
in living and dead organisms
6
Q
how is carbon stored in the cryosphere?
A
biological carbon is stored in permafrost, which prevents bacterial decay
7
Q
why is the carbon cycle referred to as ‘closed’?
A
because the amount of carbon is constant and finite
8
Q
what is a carbon flux? what is this measured in
A
the flows which move carbon between stores (from one sphere to another) measured in petagrams or gigatonnes of carbon per year
9
Q
what is a ‘process’ in the carbon cycle?
A
the physical mechanisms which drive the fluxes between stores e.g. photosynthesis and diffusion
10
Q
what is a carbon store?
A
where carbon is held
11
Q
give some examples of carbon fluxes
A
- decoposition
- burning fossil fuels
- diffusion
- photosynthesis
- respiration
- carbon sinking deeper into the ocean
- volcanic eruptions
- weathering and erosion
12
Q
give some examples of carbon stores
A
- phytoplankton
- plants
- ice sheets
- ocean surface
- deep ocean currents
- food web
- soil
- deep ocean sediments
13
Q
list the levels of ‘spheres’ in order highest to lowest
A
- atmosphere
- biosphere
- cryosphere - top of ocean
- hydrosphere - bottom of ocean
- lithosphere - earths crust
14
Q
what are the two things that carbon stores operate as? define them
A
- sources (adding carbon to the atmosphere)
- sinks (removing carbon from the atmosphere)
15
Q
what happens when carbon sources equals the sinks?
A
The carbon cycle is balanced (or in equilibrium)
16
Q
when may the carbon cycle become unbalanced?
A
when huge amounts of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere in a short period of time
17
Q
what is the Geological Carbon Cycle?
A
the slow part of the cycle focused on the huge carbon stores in rocks and sediments with reservoir turnover rates of at least 100,000 years
18
Q
what are the ways carbon can flow between stores in the geological carbon cycle?
A
- volcanic eruptions
- chemical weathering
- erosion
- sediment formation on the ocean floor
19
Q
what is the Bio-geochemical Carbon Cycle?
A
the fast part of the carbon cycle - large fluxes and rapid reservoir turnovers of a few years up to a thousand years
20
Q
in the bio-geochemical carbon cycle, which stores does carbon flow between?
A
atmosphere, oceans, ocean sediments, vegetation, soils and freshwater
21
Q
how does carbon enter the bio-geochemical carbon cycle?
A
carbon sequestration
22
Q
which store is the majority of the earth’s carbon stored in?
A
the geological store
23
Q
what are the 7 Geological Processes in the Carbon Cycle?
A
- Weathering of rocks e.g.chemical weathering: acid rain dissolving carbon rick rocks to release bicarbonates
- outgassing
- Decomposition
- Transportation of carbon and calcium sediments by rivers into the ocean to be deposited
- Sedimentation: strata of coal/chalk/limestone = built up on ocean floor through dead organic matter
- Metamorphosis
- subduction of carbon rick rocks along plate boundaries which emerge again when volcanoes erupt
24
Q
what is metamorphosis?
A
when pressure builds over time in the layers of sediment which eventually leads to deeper sediment changing to rock e.g. limestone becomes marble, shale becomes slate
- co2 is released when rocks rich in carbon are metamorphosed
25
what % of carbon containing rocks in the ocean is from shell-building organisms (corals) and plankton? how does this happen?
80%
- When corals and plankton fall to the ocean floor, they form layers and cement together eventually turning into limestone
26
what % of rocks contain organic carbon originating from organisms that have been embedded in layers of mud? how does this happen?
20%
- Heat and pressure compress the mud and carbon over millions of years to form sedimentary rock e.g. shale
27
when is coal, oil or natural gas formed instead of shale?
When organic matter builds up faster than it can decay
28
what are carbon fluxes measured in?
Pg/Gt
29
how do annual fluxes of carbon vary?
by size, rate, and timescale
30
which flux release the highest amount of carbon? how much?
- respiration (both plant and animal)
- 60 petagrams
31
which flux sequesters the most carbon? how much?
photosynthesis
- 120 petagrams
32
how does carbon move from the atmosphere to the biosphere?
photosynthesis
33
how does carbon move from the biosphere to the lithosphere?
diagenesis (decomposition)
34
how does carbon move from the lithosphere to the atmosphere?
outgassing
- happens through volcanic eruptions and the burning of fossil fuels
35
how does carbon move from the biosphere to the atmosphere?
respiration
- both plant and animal
36
what its carbon sequestration?
the process by which carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere and held in a solid/liquid form
37
which factors affect carbon sequestration?
- deforestation
- climate
38
how much of its forest has the amazon lost since when?
lost 1/5 since the 1970s
39
what could be the possible seasonal changes to local carbon cycles?
- winter: trees loose leaves = less photosynthesis. more decomposition as things die. frozen ground = harder to sequester
- higher emissions in winter as we try to stay warm
40
how does outgassing happen?
The Earth’s crust contains pockets of carbon dioxide which can be disturbed by volcanic eruptions or seismic activity
-- This release of gas that has been dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in rock is called outgassing
41
in which three places can outgassing occur?
- Volcanic zones associated with plate boundaries (including subduction zones and spreading ridges)
- Areas with no current volcanic activity, e.g., the geysers in Yellowstone National Park, USA
- Direct emissions from fractures in the Earth’s crust
42
which statistics show that outgassing by volcanic eruptions is relatively insignificant in comparison to human activity?
Volcanoes currently emit 0-15 - 0.26 Gt carbon dioxide annually
Fossil Fuel use emits about 35 Gt
43
what % of carbon dioxide is stored in undersea algae, plants, coral and dissolved form?
93%
44
which store is the largest carbon store on Earth?
oceans
45
how is the movement of carbon within oceans controlled vertically?
by carbon cycle pumps
46
how is the movement of carbon within oceans controlled horizontally?
by thermohaline circulation
47
There are three carbon cycle pumps which move carbon dioxide to the sea floor and to the ocean surface to be released into the atmosphere. what are these?
Biological pump
Carbonate pump
Physical pump
48
how does the biological carbon pump work?
- The biological cycle sequesters carbon in the ocean through photosynthesis by phytoplankton and other marine animals which converts CO2 into organic matter (10GtC per year)
- this transports carbon from the oceans' surface to the intermediate and deep ocean stores
- As the biological organisms die, their dead cells, shells and other parts sink into the mid and deep water - their decay then releases carbon dioxide into the intermediate and deep water stores
49
how does the carbonate carbon pump work?
- Relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation
- When organisms die and starts to sink, many shells dissolve before they reach the ocean floor entering the deep ocean currents
- the solubility cycle provides carbonates which some organisms use to make their shells
- when the organisms die some material sinks to the ocean floor and forms the sea bed sediment store
- over time the carbon is transformed into rocks such as limestone
50
what is the solubility cycle? how does it work?
- CO₂ from the atmosphere dissolves into the ocean.
- It reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃).
- This dissociates into bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) and carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻).
- These carbonate ions are stored mainly in the upper ocean.
51
how does the physical carbon pump work?
- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is absorbed by the ocean's surface through diffusion
- Dissolved CO2 is then taken from the surface down to the intermediate and deep ocean stores through downwelling currents
- The thermohaline circulation then distributes the carbon around the planet
52
at what temperature does water absorb more carbon? what is the consequence of this?
Cold water absorbs more CO2, therefore, as the equatorial waters move toward the poles, more CO2 is absorbed
53
at what temperature does the salinity of water increase? what does this result in?
colder water is more saline
- this makes the water denser, therefore, the water sinks (downwelling) taking CO2 from the ocean's surface to the deep ocean stores
- therefore more diffusion of carbon into the ocean can occur at surface level
54
how can carbon stored in the intermediate and deep ocean stores return to the ocean’s surface and then back into the atmosphere?
upwelling currents and turbulence created by surface winds
55
what is thermohaline circulation driven by?
differences in temperature and salinity in surface and deep ocean currents
56
what is thermohaline circulation responsible for and how?
- responsible for circulating carbon in the oceans
- Warm surface waters are depleted of nutrients and carbon dioxide through evaporation but they become enriched again through the circulation of currents
- the circulation helps move carbon in the carbonate pump from the surface to deeper waters
57
which type of sequestration has the shortest time scale?
terrestrial (seconds, minutes or years)
58
when is decomposition fastest?
in tropical climates with high temperatures, rainfall and oxygen levels
- Therefore the most productive biomes are tropical rainforests, savannah and grasslands where storage is mainly in vegetation
59
what does the term 'Diurnally' mean in terms of carbon fluxes?
the term 'diurnally' refers to the daily (24-hour) cycle of carbon exchange between an ecosystem (such as forests, oceans, or agricultural land) and the atmosphere
60
what % of global carbon is stored as dead organic matter in soils?
20-30%
61
where is carbon transferred to after plant loss such as leaf litter?
a transfer of carbon to the soil
62
what does the capacity of the soil to store organic carbon depend on?
- Climate - influences plant growth and microbial and detritivore activity
- Soil type - clay-rich soils have a higher carbon content than sandy soil as clay protects carbon from decomposition
- The use and management of soils
63
how much carbon have soils lost since 1850 due to cultivation and disturbance?
40-90 billion tonnes (Gt) of carbon
64
what type of radiation is the Earth’s climate driven by?
incoming shortwave solar radiation
65
what happens to incoming shortwave solar radiation when it enters the atmosphere?
- Around 31% is reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land surface
- The remaining 69% is absorbed with half being absorbed at the surface (e.g., oceans) and the other half is re-radiated into space as long-wave radiation
- However, much of this long-wave radiation is deflected back to the Earth’s surface by clouds and greenhouse gases
- This ‘trapping’ of long-wave radiation creates the natural greenhouse effect allowing life to be supported on Earth
66
which process plays a vital role in helping to keep carbon dioxide levels relatively constant?
photosynthesis
- both ocean and terrestrial
67
what does Soil health rely on?
the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil
68
what is the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil dependant on?
- The inputs - plant and animal residues and nutrients
- The outputs - decomposition, erosion and use in plant and animal productivity
69
how does carbon benefit soils?
it helps provide soil with its water retention capacity, its structure and fertility
70
which factor is a major threat to carbon storage and soil health and why?
- soil erosion as organic carbon is mainly found in the surface soil layer
71
since when have fossil fuels been burnt at an increasing rate?
the industrial revolution
72
how does the carbon in fossil fuels flow into the atmosphere naturally?
very slowly through volcanic activity
73
what would be the impact of changing temperatures and salinity levels of the oceans due to climate change?
- could affect the thermohaline current
- The North Atlantic Drift (NAD), also known as the Gulf Stream could slow or reverse
74
how are marine ecosystems threatened by climate change?
lower oxygen levels, higher rates of ocean acidification and food chain changes (resulting from rising temperatures)
75
how are coastal ecosystems threatened by climate change?
Coastal ecosystems are at risk from sea level rise
76
what are climate change's Implications for the Hydrological Cycle?
- reduction in sea ice/ice caps/glacier storage
- increase in surface permafrost temps
- changes in precipitation
- increased evaporation -> more moisture coruscating the cycle
- changes in the capacity of terrestrial ecosystems to sequester carbon and store water
77
define Energy security
the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at affordable prices
78
what 4 characteristics should a country with energy security have?
source must be:
- reliable and uninterrupted
- affordable and competitively priced
- accessible and available
- dependant o domestic rather than imported sources
79
define an energy secure country
a country that will be able to meet all or most of their energy demands from within their country
80
list some countries with the lowest energy security
- Morocco
- somalia
- Africa as a whole
- most of the Middle East
- greenland
81
list some countries with the highest energy security
- USA
- Australia
- UK
- most of Europe
- India
82
why is the energy demand increasing?
- Global population growth
- Development and rising standard of living
- The essential nature of energy to our everyday life
83
list the 6 main uses of energy
- modern communication
- manufacturing
- light
- transport
- heating/cooling homes
- domestic appliances
84
in what units can energy consumption be measured?
- Megawatt hours per year (MWh/yr)
- Kilograms of oil equivalent per year (kgoe/yr)
85
which areas of ocean are absorbing more co2 from the air?
cold northern and southern oceans
86
which areas of ocean are absorbing little co2 from the air?
warm equatorial water
87
what drives the ocean's circulation of water?
water density differences
88
describe how thermohaline circulation works
- North Atlantic Ocean water = very cold + therefore more saline and dense - it sinks
- by sinking warmer water is drawn in from the ocean surface above
- this draws warmer water across the oceans surface from the tropics
- movement at the tropics causes the deeper colder water to come to the surface ready to be warmed again
89
how is limestone and shale gas formed in the ocean?
death of biological matter
- matter builds up on the ocean floor as sediment and build up into thick layers after a prolonger period
- these layers of sediment will eventually go through diagenesis to form sedimentary rock
- this locks the co2 away in the geological storage as limestone and shale gas
90
define Energy intensity
a measure of how efficiently a country is using its energy
91
define energy mix
the combination of different energy sources that are used to meet a country’s total energy demand
92
what % of the UKs energy mix is gas?
36.2%
93
what % of the UKs energy mix is renewables?
14.4%
94
what % of the UKs energy mix is oil?
39.7%
95
what % of Brazil's energy mix is oil?
44%
96
what % of Brazil's energy mix is renewables?
5%
97
what % of Brazil's energy mix is hydropower?
29%
98
what % of iceland's energy mix is gas?
66.6%
99
what % of iceland's energy mix is hydropower?
19.2%
100
what % of iceland's energy mix is oil?
12.5%
101
what % of iceland's energy mix is renewables?
0%
102
what are the 3 primary energy sources that are used to generate electricity?
- Non-renewable fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas
- Renewable energy such as wind, geothermal, hydroelectricity and solar
- Recyclable fuels such as nuclear energy, biomass and general waste
103
explain the differences in energy mix between emerging, developing, and developed countries
- Developing countries usually use natural resources such as firewood for cooking
- Emerging countries will see a rise of oil use as transport and car ownership increases
- As countries develop they tend to start using more gas and nuclear power as technology advances
104
what risks is a country that depends massively on imported energy vulnerable to?
- Artificial and abrupt changes in energy prices
- Energy supplies being cut off by civil unrest or military campaigns
105
give ideas to include in this question: 'Explain why the level of economic development affects the energy mix of countries'
- The energy mix for developing countries is mostly made up of biomass and waste (wood, dung) which is cheap and often free
- Developing countries tend to use natural resources such as firewood directly for cooking
- Transport and car ownership in emerging countries will grow rapidly so oil use will rise.
- As technology develops, there tends to be a shift towards gas and eventually industrialising countries develop nuclear power
Some emerging countries may start to increase their use of renewables whilst others may not as economic development is more important
- In developed countries oil remains high as it is vital for transport but the use of coal declines due to pollution concerns and is replaced with cheaper gas
- Some developed countries have access to advanced technology so nuclear power is an option
- Many countries will see an increase in renewable energy sources due to concerns over the environment and sustainability
106
list the factors that affect a country’s access to and consumption of energy
- Physical availability
- Cost
- Technology
- Public perception
- Level of economic development
- Climate
- Environmental priorities
107
how does physical availability affect access to and consumption of energy?
- Domestic energy sources may be available, but they may not be easily accessible
- If energy sources are not available within the country, the energy will have to be imported (adding to the overall cost of energy to the consumer)
108
how does cost affect access to and consumption of energy?
There are a range of costs involved in the access and consumption of energy:
- 1. The cost of the physical exploitation
- 2. The cost of processing (converting a primary energy into a secondary energy)
- 3. The cost of delivery to the consumer
109
how does technology affect access to and consumption of energy?
- Modern technology is very useful in the exploitation of energy e.g., oil that requires deep drilling into the earth
- As a result of modern technology making energy sources more accessible, increasing energy consumption usually follows
110
how does public perception affect access to and consumption of energy?
- Energy costs can be perceived differently in different countries, for example what may be perceived as expensive in one country may seem reasonable in another
- Public perception will usually depend on the level of economic development of a country and the standard of living
111
how does climate affect access to and consumption of energy?
Regions such as North America, the Middle East and Australia have high levels of consumption as a result of the extra energy required to make the extremes of heat and cold more comfortable
112
how does Level of Economic Development affect access to and consumption of energy?
- The higher the level of development and standard of living in a country, the less sensitive they are to energy costs
- Developed countries tend to have relatively high levels of energy consumption as people have more domestic appliances that make everyday living comfortable and use more forms of transport
113
how do environmental priorities affect access to and consumption of energy?
Governments may opt for more expensive methods to meet their energy needs out of concern for the environment and the need to reduce carbon emissions
114
why is France considered not very energy secure?
France relies on 46% of its energy supplies being imported as all of its natural gas and oil are imported along with the uranium required for its nuclear power
115
why is the USA considered energy secure?
The USA only imports around 15% of its energy
116
what is an energy pathway?
the route taken by any energy from its source to its point of consumption
117
give some examples of energy pathways
different forms of transport:
- tanker ships
- pipelines
- electricity transmission grids
118
who are the 5 major energy players?
TNCs
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Energy companies
Consumers
Governments
119
what % of the big players in oil and gas (e.g., BP, ExxonMobil) are state owned? what does this mean?
- 50%
- they are not under government control which means technically they are not TNCs
120
how many member countries are in OPEC?
13
121
what proportion of the world’s oil reserves do the OPEC countries own between them? what does this allow them to do?
2/3
- OPEC is therefore able to control the amount of gas and oil in the global market along with their prices
122
what have OPEC been accused of?
forcing up the price of oil and gas by withholding/slowing production
123
why doe energy companies have a strong influence over consumer prices and tariffs?
Most of the companies are involved in the distribution of both primary energy (e.g., gas) and secondary energy (electricity)
124
what is the role of governments as a player in energy?
they look after energy security and can have an impact on how energy is sourced
125
do consumers have a large or small impact on energy prices?
small
126
which type of consumers are the most important in terms of consumers as energy players?
those in transport, industry and domestic sectors
127
which countries/regions rely the most on energy production from fossil fuels?
- africa
- Middle East
- asia
- USA
- Australia
128
which countries/regions rely the least on energy production from fossil fuels?
- canada
- greenland
- Scandinavia
- france
129
who are the two largest consumers ad producers of coal?
- china
- usa
130
who are the main suppliers of oil?
members of OPEC
131
where are the main consumers of oil?
Europe
132
who dominates gas supply?
the USA and Russia
133
who are the major importers of gas?
Western European countries and Japan
134
What causes mismatches in fossil fuel supply and demand?
Differences in physical geography (resource location) and human geography (where energy is needed).
135
What determines the location of fossil fuel resources?
physical geography
136
Do major coal producers still import coal? why?
Yes — the USA, China and India import coal because foreign coal can be cheaper.
137
Which countries export large amounts of coal to Asia?
Australia and Indonesia.
138
Why does the USA import oil despite producing its own?
Domestic production cannot meet its very high consumption levels.
139
How much oil does the USA consume daily?
More than 19 million barrels per day.
140
What is Russia’s main oil and gas export pathway?
A single major pathway to Europe.
141
How is gas transported internationally?
Through pipelines or as liquefied natural gas (LNG) by tanker.
142
What happened to Russian energy exports after the 2022 invasion of Ukraine?
Many countries pledged to restrict or stop importing Russian oil and gas.
143
What are the four main unconventional fossil fuel sources?
- Tar sands
- oil shale
- shale gas
- deepwater oil.
144
What are tar sands?
A mixture of clay, sand, water and bitumen.
145
How are tar sands extracted?
they are mined and injected with steam to reduce their viscosity, so that bitumen can be pumped out.
146
Where are the largest tar sand deposits?
Canada and Venezuela.
147
What proportion of Canada’s oil output comes from tar sands?
About 40%.
148
What is oil shale?
Oil‑bearing rock that can release oil when heated or mined.
149
What is shale gas?
Natural gas trapped in fine‑grained sedimentary rocks.
150
How is shale gas extracted?
fracking - injecting water and chemicals to force out the gas.
151
Which country leads in shale gas production?
USA
152
What share of US gas supply came from shale gas in 2015?
25%
153
What is deepwater oil?
Oil and gas found offshore at considerable ocean depths.
154
How is deepwater oil extracted?
Drilling from offshore ocean rigs.
155
Which country discovered major deepwater oil reserves in 2006?
Brazil.
156
What is a key benefit of unconventional fossil fuels?
They can increase national energy security for import‑dependent countries.
157
What is a major environmental cost of unconventional fossil fuels?
They disrupt the carbon cycle and contribute to global warming.
158
Name two environmental risks of unconventional fossil fuel extraction.
Groundwater contamination and landscape scarring.
159
what is the role of the carbon conveyor belt?
it shifts massive amounts of carbon between the deep earth and the surface, therefore playing a huge role in the earths climate and habitability
160
what are the two main ways in which the carbon conveyor belt works?
- ocean trenches: 2 plates converge and one is subjected. this place is RECYCLED into the deep earth - they carry carbon back into the earths interior
- mid-ocean ridges: when plates here move apart magma rises and creates new ocean crust. carbon is RELEASED
161
define the carbon conveyor belt
the slow movement of carbon locked in deep ocean sediment
162
what are the three types of carbon sequestration?
- oceanic sequestration
- terrestrial sequestration
- geological sequestration
163
where is carbon stored in oceanic sequestration?
at the bottom of the ocean
164
where is carbon stored in terrestrial sequestration?
soils
crops
other plants
165
where is carbon stored in geological sequestration?
underground in coal seams, saline reservoirs, oil reserves
166
where are the main terrestrial carbon sinks? why?
South America, Africa, Canada, large parts of Asia
- rainforests at the equator
167
where are the main terrestrial carbon sources? why?
america, Europe, russia
- permafrost releases carbon
- higher rates if industrialisation in these countries
168
where are the main oceanic carbon sinks found?
northern and southern Pacific Ocean
- southern ocean
169
where are the main oceanic carbon sources found?
near the equator - specifically to the left of South America
170
explain the distribution of oceanic carbon sources and sinks
phytoplankton
- need sunlight to photosynthesise , therefore found at the equator
- found in shallow waters e.g. coastal regions
- die to form sediment at the bottom of the ocean
171
how are phytoplankton provided with the nutrients they need?
the thermohaline circulation system brings nutrients up to the surface for them
172
how do zooplankton sequester carbon?
- they consume organic matter
- the feral pellets subsequently produced sink to the ocean floor
- the carbon is locked away for tens of thousands of years
173
why would rainforests be affected if the Gulf Stream collapsed?
- there would be major changes in rainfall to area with rainforests e.g. India, South America, West Africa
- natural deforestation would occur as there would be less water to support plant life
- more co2 would therefore enter the atmosphere
174
how much carbo can coastal mangroves sequester per hectare?
roughly 1000 tonnes
175
what are coastal mangroves?
forests of trees and shrubs adapted to grow in saline tidal zones
176
in how many countries are coastal mangroves found?
123
177
what area of land do coastal mangroves cover globally?
147,000km^2
178
how many species do coastal mangroves provide habitats for?
over 1500
179
why are coastal mangroves important for humans?
- 2.4 billion people live within 100km of the coast + therefore benefit from mangrove protection
- a source of tourism, timber, and fisheries
180
how much to coastal mangrove root systems reduce wave energy by?
66%
181
how much area of coastal mangrove have we lost in the recent decades?
35%
182
what % of mangrove systems are at risk? says who?
the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems in 2024 said that 50% of mangrove systems are at risk
183
what are three major threats to coastal mangroves?
- pollution
- overuse
- climate change
184
what was the total global carbon emissions in 1900 compared to in 2010?
1900 = 500 million metric tonnes
2010 = 10,000 million metric tonnes
- have increased 20x since 1900
185
why might the trend of fossil fuel emissions change over time?
- population growth
- HIC renewables
- public pressure for renewables
- finite resource
186
why was there a rapid increase in fossil fuel emissions from 1940-45?
post WWII industrial growth
187
why was there an increase in fossil fuel emissions after 2000?
better accessibility to carbon sources
- better technology
- development of LIC countries
188
list the 4 greenhouse gases
- co2
- methane
- nitrous oxide
- halocarbons
189
by how much has co2 concentration in the atmosphere increased since 1850?
30%
190
by how much has methane concentration in the atmosphere increased since 1850?
250%
191
by how much has nitrous oxide concentration in the atmosphere increased since 1850?
16%
192
how many times more powerful is methane than co2?
21x
193
how many times more powerful are halocarbons than co2?
3000x
194
what % of total greenhouse gases produced does co2 make up?
89%
195
what % of total greenhouse gases produced do halocarbons make up?
1%
196
which statistics shows the scale and significance of cattle farming?
Largest cattle ranch = Anna creek station in south Australia
- 5.85 million acres
- 2013 = livestock production accounted for 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions
197
what does the change in atmospheric carbon concentration over geological time mean?
the change in atmospheric carbon concentration over tens of thousands of years
198
what causes geological changes in atmospheric carbon concentration?
- ice ages
- volcanic eruptions - global dimming = sulfur dioxide blocks sunlight
- milankovitch cycles - proximity to the sun
199
what does the change in atmospheric carbon concentration over historical time mean?
the change in atmospheric carbon concentration over thousands of years
200
what causes historical changes in atmospheric carbon concentration?
- human impact: 70ppm increase in co2 conc. in under 1000 years - this change would usually take place across a geological time frame
--> anthropogenic human impacts: agriculture/transport/fossil fuels
201
how much have fossil fuel emissions increased by since the 1980s?
75%
202
what drives seasonal variation in atmospheric co2 concentrations? explain how
- the photosynthesis and respiration of plants
- summer = more light and therefore more photosynthesis and co2 uptake
- winter/autumn = plants die and decay to release co2 back into the atmosphere
203
describe the journey of solar radiation when it enters the atmosphere
- short wave radiation passes through the atmosphere
- some of this short wave radiation is absorbed and converted into long wave radiation
- some long wave radiation passes back into space
- some long wave radiation is reflected off green houses gases back to earth, heating it up
204
how much have global temperatures risen since 1900?
1.4 degrees celsius
205
by 2025 global annual rainfall anomalies were how high above pre-industrial levels?
1.44 degrees c above pre-industrial levels
206
how have rainfall patterns changed in the Sahel since 1900?
severe drying from 1950s-80s
- anomalies of up to 200mm
207
how have rainfall patterns changed in high latitudes since 1900?
Russia/Canada/Scandinavia
- increase of +10-20% since 1900
208
which areas are most effected by anthropogenic warming?
- artic sea ice/permafrost loss
- europe - heat waves + drought
209
what is a carbon pathway?
the movement of carbon between various stores on earth
210
what is the role of phytoplankton in the carbon cycle?
photosynthesise to remove carbon
- atmosphere to biosphere
- long term stores
211
what is the role of the tundra in the carbon cycle?
carbon is stored in ice sheets/glaciers + is release when they melt
- acts as both a source and sink
212
what is the role of soil and mangroves in the carbon cycle?
carbon is sequestered from the atmosphere into organic matter an therefore into the biosphere
- both are long term stores
213
what is the albedo affect?
the ability of surfaces to reflect sunlight
214
what are the negative impacts of increased temperatures on arctic carbon stores?
- ice melts releasing co2
- the albedo effect is reduced as more white ice melts, creating a POSITIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
215
what are the positive impacts of increased temperatures on arctic carbon stores?
- phytoplankton numbers increase away from the tropics, resulting in more carbon sequestration
- higher temps = more vegetation
- more plants and phytoplankton = increased sequestration through photosynthesis + decomposition of organic matter: NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP
216
where is the most significant global warming occurring? include a statistic.
- USA
- Canada
- russia
- europe
- the poles
-- heating up to 4 degrees c since 1900-> suggests the significance of ice sheets in warming
217
list the 9 stages of arctic amplification intensification
- co2 in the atmosphere warms the planet
- polar vortex events influence arctic heat flux
- this causes increased surface temperatures, resulting in sea ice melt and albedo feedback
- fluxes in ocean temperature and salinity then affect the biological carbon pump
- this results in less sea ice, more upper ocean heating, and greater greater thermometric contribution to sea level rise
- ice on land melts, increasing freshwater and reducing Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
- this changes the albedo effect, leading to warming and permafrost thawing
- this causes increased water vapour and therefore clouds, meaning more solar radiation is absorbed at the Earth's surface
- thawing permafrost also releases more greenhouse gases
218
what is a polar vortex event?
when the normally stable ring of strong, high-altitude winds circling the Arctic (or Antarctic) weakens and becomes distorted
219
what is the arctic heat flux?
the transfer of heat from the ocean, atmosphere, and land into the Arctic sea ice and surrounding environment, largely driving sea ice melt and regional warming
220
what is thermometric contribution?
when seawater expands and occupies more space as it absorbs over 90% of atmospheric heat
- also called thermal expansion
221
The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation?
a massive system of ocean currents that acts as a conveyor belt, transporting warm, salty surface water from the tropics to the North Atlantic and returning cold, deep water south
222
explain 'pathway 1' in relation to sea ice melt
- pathway 1 results in extreme melting
- arctic amplification intensification supports this pathway
- this is the strongest pathway due to the extent at which ice is melting
223
explain 'pathway 2' in relation to sea ice melt
rise in temperatures in the arctic result in extreme natural afforestation, for example in Norway
- this mainly occurs in coastal areas within the arctic circle
224
what % of greenland's ice sheet is reported to be melting?
90%
225
which biomes/ecosystems sequester the most carbon?
swamps/marshes
tropical rainforests
estuaries
226
how much carbon do tropical rainforests sequester annually?
100-120 GT of carbon
227
what is the annual average net productivity of swamps/marshes, tropical rainforests, and estuaries?
over 8800 kcal/m^2/year
228
which biomes/ecosystems sequester the least carbon?
deserts
tundra
open ocean
229
how much carbon does the open ocean sequester annually?
5-15 GT per year
230
how much carbon do deserts sequester annually?
less than 800 kcal/m^2/year
231
what are the characteristics of a healthy soil?
- dark, crumbly, porous
- maintains micro-biological organisms which maintain the nutrient cycle, providing vegetation with the material needed to grow
- sequesters carbon + infiltrates/percolates water to reduce flooding
- retains moisture which helps to regulate temps during heat waves
232
which healthy oil characteristics are the most important?
- sequesters carbon + infiltrates/percolates water to reduce flooding
- retains moisture which helps to regulate temps during heat waves
- - maintains micro-biological organisms which maintain the nutrient cycle, providing vegetation with the material needed to grow
233
what are the main human reasons for the billions of tones of topsoil lost?
- overgrazing
- deforestation
- pollution
234
what 3 reasons are there for declining soil health? explain each.
- drought - soil looses its ability to retain water, eating to vegetation loss and soil erosion
- land degradation: human = deforestation, overgrazing, pollution. Natural = extreme weather (drought/storms)
- industrial farming - heavy machinery + mono cropping + tilling. Fertiliser and pesticide disrupts the nutrient balance in soils + harms beneficial soil organisms e.g. earthworms
235
what are the two location based types of energy consumption?
- urban energy consumption
- rural energy consumption
236
what % of the world's energy do cities consume?
75%
237
how much co2 do London people generate?
9 tonnes per capita per year
238
how much co2 do cornwall people generate?
5.1 tonnes per capita per year
239
how has the UK's energy mix changed?
- huge reductions In coal/oil
- increases in bioenergy + hydro/solar/wind power from 2000-2020
- gas has pretty much stayed the same
- slight reductions in nuclear energy
240
how much has coal/oil usage changed in the UK since 2000?
2000 = 100 terawatt hours
2020 = less than ten terawatt hours
241
how does the cost of energy consumption affect the UK?
North Sea oil is expensive to extract
- however it is a more secure alternative to middle eastern oil
242
why is Middle Eastern oil not very reliable?
- becomes less viable if global prices fall
- supply is declining
243
how do technology limitations affect the UKs energy consumption?
- we have 150 years worth of coal reserves left, but do not have the technology to extract it (this tech. is expensive)
244
how do politics affect the UKs energy consumption?
our reliance on imported energy affects our energy security
245
what is the average annual household energy coast in the UK?
- £1300 in 2015
246
how do the UKs environmental priorities affect its energy consumption?
- UK intends to broaden its energy mix to renewable sources
- 2015 = the UK committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030
- 'green deal' was abandoned in 2015
247
what was 'green deal'?
a UK environmental scheme prioritising conservation and insulation
248
why is HEP popular in Norway?
its physical geography of mountains, steep valleys and high rainfall
249
why is HEP sometimes avoided?
it has high initial investment costs
250
which company supplies what % of Norways renewable energy and how?
- Norsk Hydro
- runs 600 HEP sites
supplies 97.5% of Norways renewable energy
251
have the UK and Norway been able to extract oil and gas from the North Sea? how?
yes
- deep water drilling technology
252
how does Norway protect its primary energy sources politically?
its interventionist approach prevents foreign companies owning primary energy sources e.g. waterfalls and mines
253
what is Norways average annual household energy cost?
£2400 in 2015
254
what are Norways environmental policies regarding energy consumption?
- 'policy for change ' 2016 - targets for carbon neutrality by 2050
- committed to a 40% reduction in domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030
255
who is an example energy stakeholder?
Petrobras
256
describe Petrobras
- brazils dominant energy producer
- has a worldwide market
- headquartered in Brazil
257
what is Petrobras' output per day?
3.40 million barrels of oil equivalent per day in 2023
258
why has Petrobras expanded?
higher production due to its expansion of present offshore fields
259
describe a positive incident that occurred through Petrobras
- there was a restart of production as Tupi field in 2025
- for this restart to happen safety upgraded mandated by Brazil's oil regulator had to be carried out
- this showed company compliance with regulatory safety standards
260
what was a negative incident that occurred though Petrobras?
- Petrobras managers and executives organised + maintained a cartel -like conspiracy - included bribery and illegally financed political parties
261
how much is expected to be invested into Petrobras between 2025-2029?
111 billion
262
what is the main energy company in Saudi arabia?
Aramco
263
what % of global co2 emissions does Aramco make up? why?
4%
its governing means that there is/are:
- 'development at any cost'
- no environmental considerations
264
who are the threats to OPEC?
- other countries with oil reserves - competition
- environmental activists = affect popularity of governance: how the consumer plays a role e.g. Green Party, just stop oil
265
who did trump kidnap and why? give evidence
Venezuelan prime minister Nicolas Maduro
- bargaining point for energy
- wants to 'extract a tremendous amount of wealth' from Venezuela (the guardian)
266
how could Maduros 'arrest' affect global oil supply?
Venezuela left with government and political instability
- may disrupt import and exports
267
which countries get 100% of their gas from russia?
finland
Latvia
estonia
Lithuania
268
what conflicts have happened due to energy?
- 2009-2015 =-4,024 500+ ships attacked along the strait of Malacca
- several pipelines were bombed in Nigeria in 2016, resulting in the loss of 300,000 barrels of crude oil per day until they were fixed
- Russia lost its European market due to the Ukraine war
269
what is the significance of the strait of Malacca?
it is the second largest chokepoint for oil and gas tankers
270
where is the largest global flow of oil from and to?
saudi arabia to china
271
What is the difference between conventional and unconventional fuel?
The key difference lies in the characteristics of the rock formations where the oil is found. Unlike the porous and permeable reservoirs that house conventional oil, unconventional oil is trapped in formations with low permeability
272
what does the term 'peak oil' mean?
the highest point in supply/demand of conventional oil reserves
273
where are the largest reserves of deepwater oil? what type of supply is this?
- unconventional supply
- northern and eastern cast of South America
- north western coast of Africa
274
why does most deepwater oil extraction happen in South America and the US , despite Africas large reserves? what does this show?
Africa doesn't have the infrastructure to extract it
- show that energy supply may not rely on physical location
275
where is most of the earths shale gas and oil found? hy are these difficult to access?
- north and south america - environmental concerns around amazon rainforest
- large amounts in central russia - tundra climate + mountainous topography
- reserves in Pakistan - conflicts over Kashmir + who owns the reserves
276
through what process are tar sands extracted?
open cast mining
277
why can open cast mining of tar sands be expensive?
- needs skilled workers and developed technology
278
much much was invested in the open cast mining of tar sands in 12 years?
$120 billion
279
how many km of toxic lakes has the open cast mining of tar sands produced?
60km
280
how does the open cast mining of tar sands threaten the environment? (6 points)
- toxic lakes leaking into rivers
- toxic sludge
- uses huge amount of co2
- contaminates groundwater
- degrades soil health
- threatens the boreal forest
281
what are the human health impacts of the open cast mining of tar sands?
water and air pollution
threatens the 3rd largest water table in the world
282
who are the stakeholder in the canada tar sand?
- givernemnts
- oil companies
- environmental groups
- local communities
283
how do oil sand operations benefit the local community?
economic benefits e.g. jobs and revenue
284
how do tar sands operations negatively influence local communities?
- the livelihoods of indigenous communities are compromised
- indigenous communities in the Alberta region are impoverished
- top down approach
- community plans are not supported e.g. government did not support plans for building a health centre
285
what % of Canadians supported the trans-mountain oil pipeline expansion?
56%
286
how are the livelihoods of indigenous communities are compromised by tar sand operations?
their ability to travel and gather food from the land is compromised as wildlife is affected by the tar sands
e.g. pollution by toxic lake leakages
287
in 2020 how many jobs did Canadas oil and gas industry support?
roughly 600,000
288
what are the to environmental groups we need to know for Canadas oil sands opposition?
- indigenous climate action
- keepers of the athabasca
289
why may oil companies operating in the Canada tar sands not benefit from the scheme?
over 70% of oil sands production is owned by foreign investors and stakeholders
290
in what way do Canada tar sands companies benefit from the operation? (statistical)
$8billion was transferred to the 'big five' of oil sands companies in the first 3/4 of 2019
291
how much money have tar sands generated for governments in canada? across what timeframe?
an estimated $200 billion across 20 years
292
what raised $350 million for energy research in canada? (tar sands related)
the carbon taxing on large industrial carbon emitters
293
in 2024 what % of US crude oil imports came from canada tar sands?
62%
294
what is the water cost of horizontal gas wells in the Canada tar sands?
each well can require 2-4 million gallons of water to drill and fracture
295
what are the two categories of 'clean' energy sources?
-Renewable sources
- Recyclable sources
296
what are the current main sources or renewable energy?
hydro, wind, solar (mainly via photovoltaic cells), geothermal and tidal
297
what factor determine whether a country has renewable energies to exploit?
physical geography
298
how does physical geography determine whether a country has renewable energies to exploit?
- Not all countries will have coasts or ‘hot rocks’ heated by magma for use in geothermal energy
- Not all countries have warm climate with long sunshine hours
- Not all countries have permanently flowing rivers or strong winds
299
list the 4 benefits of renewable energy
Renewable energy will not run out and provides many environmental benefits e.g., reduction in greenhouse gases
Will save money in the long term as operation and maintenance costs are lower
Reduces a country’s reliance on importing energy sources from abroad
Creates employment e.g., in the USA, the renewable energy sector employs three times the amount of people that the fossil fuel sector
300
list the 4 challenges of renewable energy
Few countries where renewables will be able to replace fossil fuels completely due to the intermittency of renewable energy and limitations associated with the physical geography of the country
As a result of oil prices falling during 2015, renewable energy became less attractive due to its higher costs
Can have negative impacts on the environment e.g., flooding more valleys for HEP dams
Many people will protest when there is a proposal made for a wind or solar farm close to their home
301
give two examples of recyclable energy sources
nuclear power and biofuels
302
what is the benefit of recyclable energy? give an example.
nuclear waste can be reprocessed and reused making it recyclable
e.g. in Ethiopia where there is huge agricultural waste
303
what are the 5 issues associated with using nuclear energy?
- Safety - nuclear incidents such as Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Fukushima (Japan)
- Disposal of highly toxic radioactive waste (which has a long decay life)
- Technology used means that nuclear energy is only really open to the most developed countries
- Costs - despite operational costs being relatively low, the cost of building and decommissioning are high
- Security of nuclear powered stations at a time when international terrorism is a concern
304
how do we obtain biofuels?
Biofuels are derived immediately from living matter, such as agricultural crops, forestry or fishing products and various forms of waste
305
what are the two types of biofuel?
- primary biofuels
- secondary biofuels
306
what are primary biofuels?
fuelwood, wood chips and pellets that are used unprocessed for heating, cooking or electricity
307
what are secondary biofuels?
biofuels derived from the processing of crops where two type of fuel are extracted (bio-alcohol and biodiesel) which are used to fuel vehicles and generate electricity
308
how can secondary biofuel production be increased?
the growing of biofuel crops
309
which crops can be used to create biofuels?
wheat, maize, grasses, soybeans and sugar cane
310
which two crops are mainly used for biofuel production in the UK?
oilseed rape and sugar beet
311
what are the disadvantages of biofuels?
- crops/land could be used for food production instead - promotes 'cash crops'
- needs lots of water - can lead to water shortages
- deforestation for crop land
312
who is the largest producer of sugar cane? why?
Brazil due to biofuel production
313
who has become the leading exporter of sugar and ethanol?
Brazil due to biofuel production
314
what are the environmental consequences of increased biofuel production?
more land has to be cleared for crops
- this causes deforestation, soil erosion, loss of habitat etc
315
why is coal likely to always be part of the global energy mix?
it is cheap and abundant
316
what is a hydrogen fuel cell?
a device that converts chemical energy from hydrogen and oxygen directly into electricity
317
what are the products of a hydrogen fuel cell?
electricity, water and heat
318
how many electric cars were there in the UK in 2023? how much of an increase was this from 2022?
1.1 million
- 50% increase since 2022
319
what do net zero policies intend to do about diesel and petrol only cars in 2035?
they will ban sales of them
320
what is an electric vehicle?
a vehicle propelled by one or more electric motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries or another energy storage device
321
what is the downside of electric vehicles? (building them)
Building an electric vehicle released 43% more carbon then building a comparable petrol car
322
which countries use the most electric vehicles?
Norway
sweden
denmark
finland
323
what statistic shows that China is the leader in volume of electric cars owned?
60% of all registered cars are electric
324
what are the environmental benefits of hydrogen fuel cells?
- No harmful emissions. Water vapor and heat only.
- Have a high efficiency compared to fossil fuels
325
what are the environmental costs of hydrogen fuel cells?
- High energy usage in production
- Carbon emissions in production of materials
326
what are the economic benefits of hydrogen fuel cells?
- Create jobs in manufacturing and maintenance
- Contribute in drive to carbon neutral
- Low operational costs (although high set up cost)
327
what are the economic costs of hydrogen fuel cells?
- Expensive platinum crystals
- Highly specialized materials
- Fuel cell system is expensive
328
what are the social benefits of hydrogen fuel cells?
- Create jobs in manufacturing and maintenance of fuel cells
- Make little noise so low noise pollution
329
what are the social costs of hydrogen fuel cells?
- High costs make less accessible
- Safety concerns as highly flammable
330
how many of the major auto manufacturers are developing hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles?
9
331
what statistic shows how South Korea is moving towards hydrogen power?
South Korea aims to have hydrogen power 30% of its cities by 2040
332
why might hydrogen fuel cells not decrease carbon emissions? include statistics.
- we do not have the infrastructure for large scale use of hydrogen power: We only have ~4,500 km of hydrogen pipelines globally
- Only ~1% of global hydrogen is produced from renewable energy
- it is more expensive than combustion engines making it less desirable
333
why might hydrogen fuel cells help decrease carbon emissions?
- produces next to no pollution
- hydrogen fuel cells are rechargeable and therefore sustainable
- no more combustion engines
334
which countries has biofuel use increased in the most and why?
south and North America and Indonesia
- lots of natural resources
335
how many cars in Brazil are powered by ethanol and bio diesel?
3 million
336
how many people does the biofuel industry in Brazil employ?
1.34 million
337
why is nuclear power only really available for HICs?
- expensive
338
why did France increase its nuclear power?
1970s oil crisis -> nuclear power was more reliable than importing oil from the Middle East
339
how many jobs did nuclear energy usage create in the US?
500K
340
what are the 4 alternative energy sources?
- wind + solar
- nuclear
- hydrogen fuel cells
- biofuels
341
what are the cons of solar and wind power?
- unreliable + climate dependant e.g. must be sunny + wind must be 11km/h
- expensive initial investment
- land could be better used?
342
what is a long term environmental benefit of wind power?
land can be restored after the turbines life
343
what % of Denmark energy does wind power supply?
90%
- BUT Denmark has a small population
344
how can governments encourage solar panel use?
pay home owners for having them installed
345
which case study can be used for 'the role of deforestation in the carbon and water cycle'?
madagascar
346
what proportion of Madagascars rainforest has been lost since when? why?
2/3 from 1950-1985
- due to the encouragement of forest clearing for 'cash crops' to fund debt repayments (poor governance after colonialism)
347
how much soil erosion happens in Madagascar per year?
400 tonnes per hectare per year
348
which rivers does soil in Madagascar wash into and what does this cause?
- the Sofia and betsiboka rivers
- this causes them to turn red due to the rich iron oxide soils
349
what are the negative impacts of soil erosion into rivers in Madagascar?
- iron oxide can be toxic for wildlife and ecosystems
- sediment clogs river mouths and coastal waterways
350
list the effects of deforestation on the water cycle
- decreased infiltration
- increased runoff and erosion and discharge = flooding
- less annual rainfall
- higher flood peak, shorter lag time
- increased bed load and silt/clay in river suspension
351
list the effects of deforestation on soil health
- raindrop impact = finer clay/humus particles washed away - leaves coarser and heavier sands behind
- co2 is released from decaying woody material
- biomass is lost due to less plant growth and photosynthesis
- increased leeching = minerals are lost
- nutrient loss
352
list the effects of deforestation on the atmosphere
- increased turbulence as heated ground induces convectional air currents
- reduced oxygen content
- lower rates of transpiration
- increased shading = more direct sunlight reaching forest floor
- increased humidity due to less evapotranspiration
- dryer air
- grassland is created
353
how much less are the evapotranspiration rates of grasslands compared to rainforests?
2/3 less
354
list the effects of deforestation on the biosphere
- less carbon storage due to less co2 absorbance
- less species diversity
- fewer habitats = fewer animal species survive
- biomass is lost due to less plant growth and photosynthesis
355
which facts show how soil erosion is a universal issue?
- is present in all countries no matter their economic stance
- in eery continent and almost every forested/vegetated area
356
why was there a removal of grassland in the US prairies and when? how did thus happen and what was the consequence?
2007-2015
- a biofuel rush meant farmers were encouraged to grow cash crops
- grasslands were converted to farmland turning co2 sinks into sources
357
what are two key methods in combating deforestation?
- afforestation programmes
- changes in meat production
358
what are the future projections for meat production?
by 2040;
- conventional meat will reduce by 1/3
- vegan meat substitute will double
- altered meat will grow hugely
359
what is a case study for an afforestation programme?
chinas great green wall
360
what is chinas great green wall?
a series of rainforest strips designed to hold back the expansion of the gobi desert
361
which two facts show chinas great green wall to be a long term solution/project?
- started in 1978 and projected to finish in 2050
- will be roughly 3000miles long
362
how much grassland disappeared in the prairies due to the biofuel rush?
5.5 million hectares
363
list the impacts of grassland conversion
- fewer natural habitats
- initial removal releases co2 from the soil into the atmosphere
- annual ploughing allows soil bacteria to release co2
- biofuel crops need carbon based nitrogen fertiliser and chemical pesticides
- crops need lots of water - aquifer depletion
- cultivated soils are liable to erosion by runoff and wind
364
why does china need afforestation?
- infrastructure + manufacturing
- growing population
- sustainability goals
- flood control
- reducing soil erosion
- gobi desert expansion
365
what is ocean acidification?
the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's oceans, caused by the uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
366
'explain one reason why the earths waters are becoming more acidic' 3
- more co2 in the atmosphere due to human activity like deforestation and burning fossil fuels
- therefore more co2 is sequestered into ocean stores by phytoplankton
- this lowers their pH making them more acidic
367
how much more acidic is the ocean than it was in 1750?
30% more acidic
368
describe the change in ocean pH in 40 years
from 8.12 to 8.05
369
explain how increased co2 in the atmosphere makes the ocean more acidic. what is the impact of this on marine calcifies?
- more co2 emissions = more co2 in the atmosphere
- phytoplankton sequesters the co2 into ocean stores
- carbonic acid is formed from the co2 (more co2 = more carbonic acid)
- carbonic acid releases excess hydrogen ions which both lower the pH of the ocean, and react with carbonate ions to form bicarbonate
- this means that marine organisms have less carbonate ions with which to form their shells and skeletons
- marine calcifies are therefore smaller and fewer in number
- this means that coral Skeltons cannot be maintained and the corals dissolve
370
what is the main impact of ocean acidification?
coral bleaching
371
explain how ocean acidification results in coral bleaching
- Corals survive in temperature windows of 23-29 degrees
- if waters exceed this window the zooxanthellae are ejected from the coral, causing them to turn white
- High co2 levels also disrupt the photosynthesis of algae (zooxanthellae), causing the algae to become toxic or less productive, prompting the coral to expel them.
372
why are zooxanthellae vital for corals?
Zooxanthellae are single-celled algae that live inside coral tissues, providing up to 90% of their host's energy through photosynthesis. They produce oxygen and organic nutrients (sugars, amino acids) that fuel coral growth, respiration, and the construction of calcium carbonate skeletons
373
why is coral so important?
it provides a range of ecosystem services
374
what are the 4 categories of ecosystem services?
- supporting
- provisioning
- regulating
- cultural
375
explain the 'supporting' ecosystem service. give examples
the fundamental, underlying natural processes that sustain all other ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating, and cultural)
- e.g. soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling
376
explain the 'provisioning' ecosystem service. give examples
the tangible, material, or energy outputs obtained directly from ecosystems that sustain human life and economic activity e.g. food ad fuel
377
explain the 'regulating' ecosystem service. give examples
the benefits obtained from the natural, self-sustaining processes of ecosystems that moderate environmental conditions and enhance human life e.g. flood control + air quality
378
explain the 'cultural' ecosystem service. give examples
the non-material, intangible benefits people obtain from ecosystems
- e.g. recreation, spiritual wellbeing
379
how are the fish in coral reefs beneficial to the corals?
fish excrete carbonates in their waste (the amount depends on the fish's body mass)
- these carbonates are needed by marine organisms and to maintain ocean acidification levels
they are a source of nutrients for corals e.g. metabolic waste and faeces - corals with fish have a nutrient cycling rate 5x that of corals without fish
380
what are climate belts?
broad, horizontal, or latitudinal zones on Earth's surface characterized by relatively homogeneous climate conditions, such as temperature, precipitation, and seasonal patterns
381
what are the climate belts on earth?
polar
temperate
tropical
tropical
temperate
polar
382
describe some of the changes to the earths climate belts
- increase of the northern temperate belt into the tropical belt beneath it through desertification e.g. Gobi and Sahara deserts
- a receding of polar tree lines as temperate belts expand towards the poles BUT can also result in afforestation
- expansion of the southern temperate belt e.g. tropical/warmer conditions in the greta barrier reef e.g. warmer water
383
how does Australia show the expansion of temperate climate belts? why is this problematic?
desert rainfall patterns are being seen further and further south e.g. in Sydney
- this is problematic as water tables/stores won't be replenished so cities may not be able to meet the demands to support their populations
384
which places on earth will experience the most substantial change when it comes to shifting climate belts?
- europe
- mid-latitudes
- north america
385
what is the general trend in terms of shirting climate belts?
the coldest zones on the planet are shrinking
drier areas are growing - therefore drought is more and more of an issue in places never seen before
386
what is our case study for drought in EQ3?
the amazon rainforest
387
what is the term for 'the moment when the amazon rainforest can no longer recover from repeated stress'?
the tipping point
- the point of irreversible change
388
where is the amazon is suffering from a lack of water and why?
the Port of Manaus due to lower water levels in the rio negro snd amazon river
389
what problems in the port of Manaus experiencing due to lower water levels in its rivers?
- cargo ships are unable to reach Manaus as the rivers are to shallow, resulting in a supply chain disruption
- this is an issue as manaus is a major industrial hub for electronics and manufacturing
- economic losses as transport must shift to slower and more expensive methods like trucks - some goods cannot be transported at all
- many towns rely on those rivers for food/medicine/fuel
390
how does El Niño impact drought in the amazon rainforest?
- el nino warms the Pacific Ocean and shifts atmospheric circulation
- this weakens moisture flow into the amazon resulting in hotter and drier conditions and severe drought
391
how does La Niña impact drought in the amazon rainforest?
- la nina cools the Pacific Ocean and increases rainfall
- however, after strong La Niña years transition back to El Niño can create sharp rainfall deficits
392
how did 2023 rainfall data give evidence for a close tipping point?
- water/rainfall levels drop much faster, lower, and earlier
- there were record breaking low water levels recorded
- the decline began months before the usual dry season minimum
393
how might warming and drought in the Amazon affect the carbon cycle?
- the amazing is usually a carbon sink, absorbing co2 through photosynthesis
- warming and drought reduces tree cover - if trees die or burn they release co2 into the atmosphere
- the amazon therefore may become a carbon source, resulting in a positive feedback loop
394
what is the worlds most commonly produced vegetable oil? where can It be found?
- palm oil
- frozen food like pizza, cosmetics, biofuel
395
how many tonnes of palm oil are produced annually?
6.6 million tonnes
396
what % of EU palm oil imports are used as biofuel?
50%
397
where and why are most palm oils produced/sourced?
- tropical forests e.g. Latin America, south east Asia, africa
- tropical warm/humid climates = the perfect growing conditions for oil palms
398
how are palm oil plantations created?
through the bulldozing and burning of rainforest to create land for plantations
399
what are three key impacts of forest loss?
- loss of homes for indigenous people
- loss of biodiversity
- relative to forests , deforested lands tend to have higher temps, more standing water, and higher rates of malaria
400
how many land conflicts were there in Indonesia due to palm oil plantations?
700
401
which animals are at risk of extinction due to the loss of rainforests?
- borneo elephant
- orangutan
402
what actions did Indonesia take to protect its forest and reduce deforestation?
- 2011 = president declares a 'forest moratorium'
403
how much funding was given to Indonesias forest moratorium and from who?
1.1 billion in funding from the UN and the Norwegian government
404
how did Indonesias forest moratorium protect its forests?
it prevented the issuing of permits for the clearance of primary forest and peatland for timber/pulp/palm oil
405
what were the holes in Indonesias forest moratorium plan?
- clearance permits pre 2011went ahead
- illegal logging rates rose
406
which model can help explain the relationship between economic development and environmental protection?
kuznets curve
407
describe the 3 stages of the kuznetsk curve
1 = economic development using available natural resources
2 = awareness of environmental costs leads to protection methods
3 = education builds on the success of stage 2 with increased funding from central governments
408
by how much has Brazil reduced its rate of deforestation since 2000?
- it has halved It
409
in which regions are temperate forest areas recovering/growing/increasing?
HICs
410
what action can consumers take t combat forest loss?
- joining environmental pressure groups e.g. WWF/greenpeace: many require a subscription + this money goes towards their cause
411
what action did Greenpeace taken in 2016?
- greenpeace activists blockaded a palm oil refinery in Rotterdam
- as a result nestle and other brands cancelled their with the IOI, a leading TNC in palm oil
412
what are the physical impacts of temperature increase on precipitation?
- existing patterns with strengthen : wet will get wetter, dry will get drier
- storm tracks will move storms further from the equator and towards the poles due to changes in atmospheric circulation
413
what are the physical impacts of temperature increase on river regimes? use the Yukon as an example
In the Yukon:
- snowmelt begins earlier + snow cover is decreasing -> this results in earlier peak flows to most river basins
414
how much have inflows into the Yukon river increased since 2000? why?
39%
- due to increased temperature and precipitation
415
by 2100 how much is annual precipitation in the Yukon predicted to increase?
5-20%
416
from 1958-2003 how much did the total ice area in the Yukon shrink?
22%
417
why is the amount of groundwater in the Yukon increasing?
thawing permafrost means that instead of running off over impermeable surfaces, water penetrates deeper into the soil
418
what can be the social impacts of changing carbon cycles?
- loss of food sources - e.g. warmer water kills coldwater plankton which are a food source for Atlantic cod
- loss of coastal mangroves = less stability against erosion + shelter against storm surges
419
what can be the economic impacts of changing carbon cycles?
- mangroves lost +coral bleaching = loss of tourism e.g. great barrier reef
- 520million of the poorest people on earth rely on fisheries for food and income
420
why and by how much are krill stocks in the southern ocean decreasing?
- 75% decreases in krill stocks per year in some parts of the southern ocean
421
what % of mangroves have been lost due to clearing for tourist developments and shrimp/prawn aquaculture since 1990?
25%
422
what % of marine species do corals shelter?
25%
423
describe the Benguela current
- a thick fog off the coast of Namibia
- it causes many shipwrecks - these ships may end up far inland due to the abundance of land dunes (sand collects around them)
- due to climate change this fog is becoming increasingly unstable and unpredictable -> this is a threat to ecosystems
424
what are the positive values of the ocean to humans?
- fishing
- recreation
- Carbon sequestration
- future water source through desalination
425
what % of global carbon emissions are absorbed by oceans? what economic value does this have? what is the socioeconomic link?
30%
- economic value of $4.3 trillion in 2020
- socioeconomic link = ocean acidification risks coral bleaching and the destruction of tourism industries in parts of the Pacific and caribbean
426
what is the direct economic output of marine fisheries/coral reefs/sea grass/mangroves and when? what is the socioeconomic link?
$6.9 trillion in 2020
- socioeconomic link = mangroves reduce both wave energy and the flow of soil/sediment form the land to the sea - this protects areas of coral reefs
427
how much money did marine trade and transportation generate in 2020? what is the socioeconomic link?
$5.2 trillion
- socioeconomic link = consumerism positively correlates with human wellbeing, and cheaper labour abroad has allowed SOME people to benefit from more resources
428
what was the global sea food market valued at in 2023? what is the socioeconomic link? what is the socioeconomic link?
$81.2 billion
- socioeconomic link: seafood is an essential source of protein for communities where livestock rearing is challenging and importing meat is an impossibility
429
would would happen upon a 'collapse' of the gulf stream?
the Gulf Stream would shift direction
430
what could the collapse of the Gulf Stream signal?
a complete collapse of the ocean ability to regulate temperature
- could also foreshadow the potential tipping point/collapse of other systems e.g. death of phytoplankton
431
what would the collapse of the gulf stream mean for cold/warm regions? use specific locations
- Arctic sea ice melting would drastically increase e.g. due to warmer water around Greenland
- warm waters would sit for far longer around the eats coast of the US + cause extreme coastal flooding due to the thermoexpansion of sea water and sea level rise
432
what are the current patterns of fish migration? what does this mean for people? what exacerbates this trend?
as waters warm around coastal regions/ports, fish migrate north/south to colder water to survive e.g. from Svalbard towards the arctic ocean
- this means that the fish stocks and therefore food supplies deplete
- loss of corals exacerbates this
433
what is an ocean dead zone?
an area of ocean where oxygen levels are so low that most marine species cannot survive there
434
what causes the depletion of oxygen to cause an ocean dead zone?
the nitrogen in fertilisers (runoff), oil spills, ocean acidification
- climate change makes them larger by intensifying storms and exacerbating runoff
435
where are the most severe dead zones?
- black sea
- sea around india
- west coast of Mexico
- west of the South American coastline
436
how much oxygen to ocean dead zones such as the Black Sea have?
less than 2 μmol/kg
437
what 4 categories can wellbeing be broken down into?
- physical health
- mental stability
- social connections
- sense of purpose
438
which of the examples from our first water and wellbeing lesson may affect physical health?
- fish migration (lack of food)
- collapse of the Gulf Stream (injury from flooding)
- ocean dead zones (unsafe waters)
439
which of the examples from our first water and wellbeing lesson may affect mental stability?
- collapse of the Gulf Stream (flooding = loss of livelihood)
- ocean dead zones (environmental concerns)
440
how might an ocean dead zone impact a coastal region?
- reduced food source --> food shortages + starvation/malnutrition
- loss of income/jobs for fishermen/fishmongers -> poverty
441
in what are there future uncertainties (planetary warming risks)
- future emissions
- future atmospheric concentration levels
- future climate warming
442
give 5 human-based reasons why there is so much uncertainty in future planetary warming risks. explain why they create uncertainty.
- global politics - leaders hold the power/potential for conflict/energy mix/investment in sustainables
- global market crashes - due to the actions of political leaders
- population predictions - how much will our population grow? hoe many more/les people will we need to provide energy for? will LICs develop enough to stop having so many children
- pandemics - we cannot predict when they will arise
- sustainable energy growth - how far will this develop? will people abide by it?
443
what is the cryosphere?
all parts of the Earth's surface where water exists in solid form, including sea ice, glaciers, ice sheets, icebergs, snow cover, and frozen ground (permafrost)
444
what have been the consequences of increased air pollution, dust storms, and wildfires on glaciers since the 20th century
- there is increased dust/soot deposits/microbial and agal growth on glaciers/snow
- this reduces the albedo effect and therefore increases melting
445
what % of their mass are mountain glaciers predicted to lose by 2100?
26-41%
446
what have been the knock on impacts of changes to glaciers since the 20th century?
- increased temperatures
- glacial recession
- permafrost thaw
-- change in precipitation patterns
--> all of these contribute to an increased risk of floods/landslides/avalanches - this blocks and damages transport infrastructure, human settlement, and human activities
447
what have been the economic losses in mountain regions between 1985 and 2014 due to mountain events (avalanches, landslides, flooding). how many people were effected? How many died
- over US$56 billion
- affected over 258 million people
- around 40,000 dead
448
what is black carbon?
a dark, light-absorbing soot produced by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels, and biomass
449
what is the effect of black carbon on glaciers?
it reduces the surface's albedo (reflectivity), causing it to absorb more solar energy, which significantly accelerates melting
450
what are the main causes of black carbon on glaciers?
- increased number of wildfires
- more dust storms
- human activities in general
451
what happens when a tipping point is crossed?
the system shifts to a new state, which has potentially severe consequences for ecosystems, weather patterns, and human societies
452
what are our case studies for tipping points?
- forest die back
- loss of permafrost
- changes to thermohaline circulation
453
what is forest die back?
the widespread, often rapid decline and death of trees within a forest ecosystem
454
what are the main causes of forest die back?
- drought
- pests
- human damage
- disease
455
how does melting sea ice effect the thermohaline conveyor belt?
- melting sea ice means there is more sea water, but less of it is saline
- the large amounts of nonsaline sea water blocks the conveyor belt
456
what is an SSP? who are they produced by?
- shared socioeconomic pathways
- produced by the IPPC
457
what is the SSP that the IPCC thinks we should take?
- SSP1: sustainability
- the green road
458
describe SSP1
- a gradual but pervasive movement towns a sustainable path
- prioritises sustainability over economic growth and development
- aims for less material growth and a lower resource.energy intensity
459
what does the world bank predict about the economic output of SSP1?
- it will give the second highest economic output
460
which SSP will give the highest economic output?
SSP5
- the high road
- fossil fuel development
461
what are the supporting arguments for SSP5
- an advanced economy will have the money to fund sustainable development
- living standards will increase worldwide e.g. less people in poverty
462
what can be done to help countries suffering from sea level rise?
- decrease emissions
- allow climate migration
- 'build up' e.g. houses on stilts
- land use change/floodplain zoning
- International agreements
- changing/reducing technologies
463
who should take responsibility for climate refugees?
- closest land area? - BUT these may not have the resources or capacity to support them
- HICs with highest emissions
- global organisations
464
define mitigation
attempts to reduce/prevent greenhouse gas emissions to slow global warming
465
define adaptation
attempts to reduce the vulnerability to current and future climate impacts
- how to live with them
466
give 4 examples of climate change adaptation strategies
- water conservation and management
- land use planning
- resilient agricultural systems
- solar radiation management
467
what does water conservation and management involve?
- smart irrigation
- recycling sewage water for agricultural use
- reducing agricultural consumption
- managing demand
468
how might water conservation and management attempt to manage demand?
by charging real value prices for water to reflect the cost of supply an ecosystem management
469
describe how land use planning is an adaptive strategy to climate change?
- is used for flood management --> development on floodplains is limited for low impact activities like playing fields and parks
- low coast
- infiltration occurs naturally and surface runoff and therefore flood risk is reduced
470
describe how resilient agricultural systems are an adaptive strategy to climate change? (include benefits)
- crops aren't ploughed and fewer fertilisers are used
- this results in benefits such as: increase yields, increased farmer incomes, better soil health and structure, erosion control, water conservation
471
where are resilient agricultural systems currently in use?
- USA
- Iraq
- syria
472
what is solar radiation management?
a form of climate engineering aimed at reflecting solar rays and reduce global warming
473
which techniques are used in solar radiation management?
- pumping sulfur aerosols into into the upper atmosphere
- cloud brightening
- space- based reflectors
474
what are the positives of solar radiation management?
can be deployed relatively quickly
475
what are the downsides to solar radiation management?
- uncertainty about effectiveness
- potentially expensive
- ethical/social/political issues
476
list 4 climate change mitigation strategies
- afforestation
- carbon taxation
- renewable switching
- carbon capture and storage
477
what is a carbon tax?
a fee/cost paid by fossil fuel users - it is directly linked to the level of co2 emissions produced by that fuel
478
what is the downside to carbon taxation?
it doesn't guarantee any reduction one missions
479
what is the benefit of carbon taxation?
gives countries incentives for reducing their emissions and fossil fuel use
480
give an example of a carbon taxations scheme
the UKs carbon price floor
- this is a tax on fossil fuels used to generate electricity
- this cam into effect in 2013
481
the use of oil in Sweden to produce electricity has shrunk since 1970. how much has it shrunk?
- 1970 = 75% of electricity came from oil
- today = only 20% of electricity comes from oil
482
what % of Swedens energy comes from nuclear and hydroelectric power?
83%
483
when and where in the world became the first commercial carbon capture coal-fired power plant?
Boundary dam in Canadas Saskatchewans region
- 2014
484
how much does Boundary dam in Canadas Saskatchewans region aim to reduce co2 emissions by? how do they plan to do this?
aim to reduce co2 emissions by 90% by trapping it underground before it can reach the atmosphere
485
what were the 3 main aims of the Paris agreement?
- limit warming to 1.5*C above pre-industrial levels
- reach net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050
- allow countries to set their own goals to build trust and accountability
486
list 6 benefits of the Paris agreement
- includes almost every nation on earth --> creates global corporation/inclusivity
- sets objectives and incentives for lower emissions
- NDCs - nationally determined contributions
- gives support to developing countries to reach targets
- clearer air and better health due to reduced emissions
- more jobs created through energy - up to 134milion jobs by 2030
487
how many jobs are predicted to be created through renewable energy by 2030
134 million
488
list 3 negatives of the Paris agreement
- non-binding + a lack of enforcement - there is no penalty for not meeting goals
- the pledges are too weak - more needs to be done
- there is economic and political resistance to renewables
489
by 2100 what is the predicted degree of warming?
+ 3*C
490
what are the economic and political resistances to renewables
- cleaner energy = higher energy costs for consumers
- jobs are lost in fossil fuel sectors
491
by how much has the % of US adults who think the environment should be prioritised over the economy shrunk since 1980?
between 1980 and 2013 the % shrunk by 10%
492
What percentage of China's population holds 67% of national wealth?
10%
493
What is China's GDP per capita?
$13,300
494
What is China's population as of early 2026?
1.41 billion
495
What is China’s 2035 emissions target under the Paris Agreement?
Cut greenhouse gas emissions to 7–10% below peak levels
496
What share of China’s energy mix is targeted to come from non‑fossil fuels?
30%
497
What year does China aim to reach carbon neutrality?
2060
498
How much does China aim to increase forest stock volume from 2005 levels?
11 billion cubic metres
499
How much wind and solar capacity does China aim to install?
Over 3,600 GW
500
Which sector did China surpass its 2030 target in six years early?
Wind and solar capacity (exceeding 1,200 GW)
501
Name one major state‑owned TNC in China’s energy sector.
CNPC (China National Petroleum Corporation)
502
How many new energy vehicles (NEVs) did China have by June 2022?
Nearly 10 million
502
What is the role of the State Grid Corporation of China?
to Integrating large amounts of renewable energy into the national grid
503
What was China’s national forest coverage by 2019?
22.96%
504
What is a key example of China’s water‑management adaptation strategy?
Large water‑transfer systems and strengthened river basin protections
505
What is a sponge city?
Urban infrastructure designed to absorb and recycle rainwater
GEOGRAPHY
flashcards
Decks in class (53)
# Cards
-
TECTONICS88
-
Tectonics - Typhoon Haiyan13
-
Tectonics - Haiti 20108
-
Tectonics - Monserrat eruption 19956
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Tectonics - Mount St. Helens eruption6
-
Tectonics - 2004 Asian Tsunami9
-
Tectonics - Christchurch earthquake 20114
-
Tectonics - Japan Tsunami9
-
COASTS130
-
GLOBALISATION112
-
Globalisation - Disneys Globalisation7
-
Globalisation Struggling to Globalise - Zambia11
-
Globalisation Switzerland - a switched on country4
-
Globalisation - Deindustrialisation in Detroit8
-
Globalisation - Deindustrialisation in Leicester4
-
Globalisation - Mumbai8
-
Globalisation - Cultural diffusion in Cuba4
-
Globalisation - cultural erosion - Bougainville7
-
Globalisation - Bangladesh - negative impacts of globalisation4
-
Globalisation - tonnes transition town5
-
Globalisation - controlling globalisation5
-
REGENERATION169
-
Regeneration - High Wycombe40
-
Regeneration - Tottenham11
-
Regeneration - HS2 Railway and Heathrow13
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Regeneration - the Rustbelt USA10
-
Regeneration - London Docklands15
-
Regeneration - Grampound Cornwall - engagement5
-
Regeneration - Plymouth - urban rebranding7
-
Regeneration - Cornwall - rural rebranding7
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WATER - Yukon River3
-
WATER - Amazon River4
-
WATER - Indus River2
-
WATER- Drought - The Sahel11
-
WATER - Drought - California10
-
WATER - Finite water resources - California18
-
WATER - privatisation of water - Cochabamba4
-
WATER - positive/negative impacts of water privatisation12
-
WATER - Tensions over the Nile15
-
WATER - water transfers in China8
-
WATER - sustainable use of water - Singapore33
-
WATER - impacts of drought on wetland and forest ecosystems12
-
WATER179
-
Superpowers - Players in international decision making44
-
SUPERPOWERS - Examples of hard and soft power9
-
SUPERPOWERS327
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MIGRATION - contested borders55
-
Migration - migration in China11
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MIGRATION + EQ181
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SOVREIGNITY + EQ2210
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IMPACT OF IGOs EQ3168
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CARBON506
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Important international players0
