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Cellular Anatomy & Function(Ch.3) Flashcards

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1
Q

What separates the cell’s internal environment from the external environment?

A

The cell membrane

The cell membrane is crucial for maintaining homeostasis.

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2
Q

What is the function of the cell membrane?

A

Regulates the movement of materials into and out of the cell

This regulation is essential for cellular function.

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3
Q

What are the main components of the cell membrane?

A

Composed of:
* Phospholipids
* Cholesterol
* Carbohydrates
* Proteins

These components contribute to the membrane’s structure and function.

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4
Q

How would you describe the structure of the cell membrane?

A

Flexible, dynamic structure

This flexibility allows for various cell functions and interactions.

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5
Q

What are proteins associated with the cell membrane responsible for?

A

Functionality such as channel proteins, receptors, enzymes, and cell–cell recognition

These proteins play crucial roles in various cellular processes.

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6
Q

What are transmembrane proteins?

A

Proteins that span the entire width of the cell membrane

Also known as integral proteins.

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7
Q

What are peripheral proteins?

A

Proteins that do not span the membrane and are attached to the interior or exterior of the membrane

They are associated with the membrane but do not penetrate it.

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8
Q

True or False: Transmembrane proteins are also referred to as peripheral proteins.

A

False

Transmembrane proteins are distinct from peripheral proteins.

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9
Q

What are glycoproteins?

A

Proteins that have carbohydrate molecules attached

Glycoproteins play a key role in various biological functions.

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10
Q

What role do glycoproteins play in cell recognition?

A

They aid in cell recognition

This is crucial for immune response and cellular communication.

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11
Q

What is formed by numerous glycoproteins?

A

Glycocalyx

The glycocalyx is a carbohydrate-rich layer that covers the cell membrane.

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12
Q

Are glycoproteins present in all cells?

A

No, they are only present in some cells

Their presence varies depending on cell type and function.

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13
Q

What function can glycoproteins serve apart from cell recognition?

A

They can serve as receptors for hormones and a means to bind to other cells

This is important for signaling and cellular interactions.

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14
Q

How do glycoproteins help in nutrient breakdown?

A

They help break down nutrients

Glycoproteins can be involved in digestive processes and nutrient absorption.

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15
Q

What is the property of the cell membrane regarding permeability?

A

Cell membrane is selectively permeable

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16
Q

What types of molecules can pass freely through the cell membrane?

A

Small, nonpolar molecules

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17
Q

What drives the flow of molecules across the cell membrane?

A

A gradient

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18
Q

In which direction do molecules flow across the membrane?

A

From high to low concentration

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19
Q

What can prevent the flow of molecules across the membrane?

A

Resistance

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20
Q

What does movement require in terms of gradients?

A

A concentration gradient

Movement is driven by the difference in concentration of molecules across a space.

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21
Q

True or False: Movement requires energy.

A

False

Movement occurs without the direct use of energy.

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22
Q

What are the two forms of movement?

A
  • Simple diffusion
  • Facilitated diffusion

These forms differ in their mechanisms for molecule transport.

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23
Q

Define simple diffusion.

A

Molecules move from higher to lower concentration without the use of membrane proteins

This process occurs passively as molecules spread out.

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24
Q

Define facilitated diffusion.

A

Molecules move from higher to lower concentration through membrane proteins

This process involves specific proteins that assist in the transport of molecules.

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25
What type of molecules can pass through the cell membrane?
Small, nonpolar molecules ## Footnote These molecules can easily diffuse across the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
26
What happens during diffusion until a net equilibrium is reached?
Diffusion continues ## Footnote Net equilibrium is the state where the concentration of molecules is equal on both sides of the membrane.
27
How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
Diffusion occurs faster at higher temperatures ## Footnote Increased temperature provides more energy to the molecules, increasing their movement.
28
What is the movement of water across the cell membrane called?
Osmosis ## Footnote Osmosis refers to the movement of water through a semipermeable membrane.
29
Water moves from areas of _______ to _______ concentration.
lower solute; higher solute ## Footnote This movement helps to balance solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane.
30
What is a hypotonic solution?
Less solute outside of the cell ## Footnote In a hypotonic solution, water enters the cell, potentially causing it to swell.
31
What happens to cells in hypotonic solutions?
Water enters cells ## Footnote This can lead to cell swelling and possibly bursting if the pressure becomes too great.
32
What is a hypertonic solution?
More solute outside of the cell ## Footnote In a hypertonic solution, water moves out of the cell.
33
What happens to cells in hypertonic solutions?
Water will leave cells ## Footnote This can result in cell shrinkage or crenation.
34
What is an isosmotic solution?
Isosmotic solutions have equal concentrations of solute ## Footnote Isosmotic solutions maintain cell size and shape.
35
What characterizes a hyperosmotic solution?
A hyperosmotic solution contains more solute by comparison ## Footnote Hyperosmotic solutions can cause cells to shrink.
36
What defines a hypoosmotic solution?
A hypoosmotic solution contains less solute by comparison ## Footnote Hypoosmotic solutions can cause cells to swell or burst.
37
What does tonicity describe?
Tonicity describes the osmolarity of the ECF compared to the cytosol of the cell ## Footnote Tonicity affects cell volume and function.
38
What is the process that requires energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient?
Active transport ## Footnote Active transport involves moving molecules from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher concentration.
39
What energy source does primary active transport use?
ATP ## Footnote Primary active transport directly utilizes ATP to move molecules.
40
What energy source does secondary active transport use?
Electrochemical gradient ## Footnote Secondary active transport relies on the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient.
41
What are symporters?
Molecules that move two substances in the same direction ## Footnote Symporters facilitate the simultaneous transport of two different molecules.
42
What are antiporters?
Molecules that move two substances in opposite directions ## Footnote Antiporters transport one molecule into the cell while moving another out.
43
What is a form of active transport that uses the cell membrane to engulf materials?
Endocytosis ## Footnote Endocytosis involves the cell membrane pinching off to form a vesicle, allowing materials to enter the cell.
44
What happens to the cell membrane during endocytosis?
The cell membrane pinches off to form a vesicle ## Footnote This process allows the material to enter the cell.
45
List the three forms of endocytosis.
* Phagocytosis * Pinocytosis * Receptor-mediated endocytosis ## Footnote Each form of endocytosis has distinct functions in cellular uptake.
46
What type of endocytosis involves the engulfing of large particles?
Phagocytosis ## Footnote Phagocytosis is often referred to as 'cell eating' and is crucial for immune responses.
47
What is pinocytosis?
A form of endocytosis that involves the uptake of liquids and small particles ## Footnote Pinocytosis is often described as 'cell drinking'.
48
What characterizes receptor-mediated endocytosis?
It involves the uptake of specific substances after binding to receptors on the cell membrane ## Footnote This process allows cells to intake necessary nutrients efficiently.
49
What is phagocytosis?
Extends the cell membrane to bring in large molecules ## Footnote Phagocytosis is a form of endocytosis where cells engulf large particles or cells.
50
What is pinocytosis?
Membrane invagination brings in small amounts of fluid containing dissolved substances ## Footnote Pinocytosis is often referred to as 'cell drinking' and is a way for cells to take in nutrients.
51
What is receptor-mediated endocytosis?
More selective; ligand binds to membrane receptor for cellular entry ## Footnote This process allows cells to take in specific molecules that are bound to receptors on the cell surface.
52
What is the fluid-like interior of cells called?
Cytoplasm ## Footnote The cytoplasm includes its compartments and organelles.
53
What are organelles?
Membrane-bound structures that perform specific functions ## Footnote Organelles are essential for various cellular processes.
54
What is the gel-like substance within the cytoplasm known as?
Cytosol ## Footnote Cytosol contains organelles and molecules needed by the cell.
55
Fill in the blank: The _______ contains organelles and molecules needed by the cell.
Cytosol
56
True or False: Organelles are non-membrane-bound structures.
False ## Footnote Organelles are specifically membrane-bound structures.
57
What does cytoplasm include?
Cytosol, organelles, and compartments ## Footnote Cytoplasm is essential for cellular function.
58
What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
A series of channels continuous with the nuclear membrane that provides passages for synthesis, transportation, and storage ## Footnote The ER is a critical organelle in eukaryotic cells, facilitating various cellular processes.
59
What characterizes Rough ER?
Contains ribosomes and is involved in protein synthesis ## Footnote The presence of ribosomes gives Rough ER a 'rough' appearance under a microscope.
60
What is the role of Smooth ER?
Lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis ## Footnote Smooth ER also plays a role in detoxification and calcium ion storage.
61
Fill in the blank: Rough ER is involved in _______.
[protein synthesis]
62
Fill in the blank: Smooth ER is involved in _______.
[lipid synthesis]
63
True or False: The Smooth ER contains ribosomes.
False
64
What is one main function of the Endoplasmic Reticulum?
Synthesis, transportation, and storage of biomolecules ## Footnote The ER plays a vital role in the production and processing of proteins and lipids.
65
What is the Golgi Apparatus?
A series of flattened sacs.
66
What is the primary function of the Golgi Apparatus?
Sorts and modifies products from rough ER for transport.
67
What is the role of the cis-face of the Golgi Apparatus?
Receives products for modification.
68
What is the role of the trans-face of the Golgi Apparatus?
Releases products after modification.
69
What are lysosomes?
Membrane-bound vesicles that contain digestive enzymes ## Footnote Lysosomes are involved in breaking down wastes within the cell.
70
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
To break down wastes within the cell ## Footnote Lysosomes help in the degradation of cellular debris and foreign materials.
71
What do peroxisomes contain?
Enzymes used to produce hydrogen peroxide ## Footnote Peroxisomes are involved in detoxification and lipid metabolism.
72
What are the main functions of peroxisomes?
Detoxification and lipid metabolism ## Footnote They help in breaking down fatty acids and detoxifying harmful substances.
73
What is the site of aerobic respiration in cells?
Mitochondria ## Footnote Mitochondria are often referred to as the powerhouses of the cell.
74
What is produced as a result of mitochondrial function?
ATP ## Footnote ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the energy currency of the cell.
75
Fill in the blank: Lysosomes are used to break down _______.
wastes
76
True or False: Peroxisomes are primarily responsible for ATP production.
False ## Footnote ATP production is primarily the function of mitochondria.
77
What is the function of the 'Energy transformer' of the cell?
It is responsible for energy production in the cell ## Footnote This term often refers to mitochondria, which convert biochemical energy into ATP.
78
How many bilayers line the 'Energy transformer' of the cell?
2 bilayers
79
What are the two types of membranes found in the 'Energy transformer' of the cell?
* Outer membrane * Inner membrane
80
What is a notable feature of the inner membrane of the 'Energy transformer'?
It is folded into cristae
81
In which types of cells are 'Energy transformers' more numerous?
* Muscle cells * Nerve cells
82
What are the three types of protein filaments that provide support?
1. Microtubules 2. Intermediate filaments 3. Microfilaments
83
Microtubules are made of _______.
tubulin
84
Intermediate filaments are made of _______.
keratin
85
Microfilaments are made of _______.
actin
86
What is the nature of the cytoskeleton?
The cytoskeleton is not fixed.
87
How do cytoskeletal components behave?
Cytoskeletal components form and can move depending on the needs of the cell.
88
What is one function of the cytoskeleton?
Helps move molecules and structures around the interior of the cell.
89
What does the nucleus house?
The DNA of the cell
90
How many nuclei do most human cells have?
A single nucleus
91
What surrounds the nucleus?
The nuclear envelope
92
What is the function of nuclear pores?
Allow small molecules to move into and out of the nucleus
93
What is the role of the nucleolus?
Involved in ribosome production
94
What nucleic acids are found in a healthy human cell?
DNA, mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA ## Footnote These nucleic acids play various roles in cellular functions.
95
What is the function of DNA in a healthy human cell?
Storage form of genome ## Footnote DNA contains the genetic information necessary for the development and functioning of living organisms.
96
What role does mRNA play in a healthy human cell?
Used in translation of proteins ## Footnote mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
97
What is the function of tRNA during translation?
Moves amino acids ## Footnote tRNA transports specific amino acids to the ribosome, where they are added to the growing protein chain.
98
What is rRNA and its role in the cell?
Structural component of ribosomes ## Footnote rRNA helps form the core of ribosome structure and also catalyzes protein synthesis.
99
What is the structure of DNA?
DNA has a double-helix structure formed by hydrogen bonds between nucleotide bases. ## Footnote The double-helix structure was first described by James Watson and Francis Crick.
100
What are the four nucleotide bases of DNA?
* Adenine (A) * Thymine (T) * Cytosine (C) * Guanine (G) ## Footnote These bases pair specifically: A with T, and C with G.
101
Which base does Adenine form a bond with?
Adenine forms a double bond with thymine. ## Footnote This pairing is essential for the accurate replication of DNA.
102
Which base does Cytosine form a bond with?
Cytosine forms a triple bond with guanine. ## Footnote The triple bond is stronger than the double bond between A and T.
103
What are DNA strands wrapped around for organization?
Histone proteins ## Footnote Histone proteins help in the packaging and organization of DNA into a compact structure.
104
What is the loose form of DNA called?
Chromatin ## Footnote Chromatin allows for easier access to genetic information when DNA is not tightly coiled.
105
What happens to chromatin during replication?
It is packaged to form chromosomes ## Footnote This packaging is essential for the proper segregation of genetic material during cell division.
106
What is the proteome?
A cell’s full complement of proteins ## Footnote The proteome reflects the dynamic nature of protein expression in cells.
107
What do genes contain?
Information necessary to make proteins ## Footnote Genes are segments of DNA that encode for specific proteins.
108
What is the process of transcribing DNA?
DNA is transcribed to mRNA ## Footnote This process involves creating a complementary RNA strand from the DNA template.
109
What is the function of mRNA?
mRNA is then translated to proteins ## Footnote mRNA serves as a template for protein synthesis during translation.
110
What happens to mRNA transcripts before leaving the nucleus?
mRNA transcripts are modified ## Footnote This modification includes the removal of introns.
111
What are regions of DNA that do not code for amino acids called?
Introns ## Footnote Introns are non-coding segments of DNA.
112
What are the regions of DNA that code for amino acids called?
Exons ## Footnote Exons are the coding segments that are expressed in proteins.
113
True or False: Introns must be removed before mRNA leaves the nucleus.
True ## Footnote Removing introns is essential for the proper processing of mRNA.
114
What is a codon?
Each three nucleotide sequences of mRNA is a codon ## Footnote Codons are the basic units of genetic code that specify amino acids.
115
What do ribosomes do?
Ribosomes read codons ## Footnote Ribosomes are the molecular machines that synthesize proteins by translating mRNA.
116
What is the role of transfer RNA (tRNA)?
tRNA brings amino acids to ribosomes ## Footnote tRNA is crucial for translating the genetic code into proteins.
117
What do anticodons do?
tRNA contains anticodons that match specific mRNA codons ## Footnote Anticodons ensure the correct amino acid is added during protein synthesis.
118
How are amino acids linked together?
Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form proteins ## Footnote Peptide bonds are strong covalent bonds that form between amino acids.
119
What are the three phases of the cell cycle?
Interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis ## Footnote These phases represent the stages a cell goes through in its life cycle.
120
What phase does the cell spend most of its time in?
Interphase ## Footnote Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle.
121
What are the sub-phases of interphase?
G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase ## Footnote Each sub-phase has distinct functions critical to cell growth and preparation for division.
122
What occurs during the G1 phase?
Cell grows, makes proteins, and carries out cellular functions ## Footnote This phase focuses on growth and normal metabolic processes.
123
What happens during the S phase?
Cell replicates its DNA ## Footnote DNA replication is crucial for ensuring each daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic information.
124
What is the primary function of the G2 phase?
Cell prepares for mitosis ## Footnote This phase involves the final preparations for cell division, including checking for DNA errors.
125
What occurs as the parent cell divides?
Cellular replication occurs to form two daughter cells ## Footnote This process is essential for growth and repair in organisms.
126
In which type of cells does mitosis occur?
Mitosis occurs in somatic cells ## Footnote Somatic cells are all body cells except reproductive cells.
127
What is true about daughter cells produced by mitosis?
Daughter cells are identical to the parent cell ## Footnote This genetic similarity is crucial for maintaining tissue function.
128
How many chromosomes do cells contain after mitosis?
Cells contain 46 chromosomes or the diploid number ## Footnote This is the normal chromosome number for human somatic cells.
129
What process occurs for reproductive cells?
Meiosis occurs for reproductive cells ## Footnote Meiosis is essential for sexual reproduction.
130
What is the genetic material composition of cells resulting from meiosis?
Resulting cells have half the amount of genetic material from one parent and half from the other parent ## Footnote This ensures genetic diversity in offspring.
131
How many chromosomes do cells contain after meiosis?
Cells contain 23 chromosomes or the haploid number ## Footnote This is the normal chromosome number for human gametes.
132
What phase of the cell cycle does DNA copying occur?
S phase
133
What is the first phase of DNA replication?
Initiation
134
What enzyme is responsible for separating the DNA strands during initiation?
Helicase
135
What is the second phase of DNA replication?
Elongation
136
What enzyme synthesizes a new DNA strand during elongation?
DNA polymerase
137
What is the third phase of DNA replication?
Termination
138
Fill in the blank: The process of copying DNA occurs during the _______ of the cell cycle.
S phase
139
True or False: DNA replication consists of four phases.
False
140
List the three phases of DNA replication.
* Initiation * Elongation * Termination
141
What is chromatin?
The linear form of DNA ## Footnote Chromatin is the material that makes up chromosomes, consisting of DNA and proteins.
142
What happens to chromatin during replication?
Condensed into chromosomes ## Footnote This process is essential for cell division.
143
What is the replicated copy of DNA called?
Sister chromatid ## Footnote Sister chromatids are identical copies formed by the replication of a chromosome.
144
Where are sister chromatids attached?
At a centromere ## Footnote The centromere is the region of the chromosome where the two sister chromatids are joined.
145
What happens to chromatids during mitosis?
They separate ## Footnote This separation ensures that each daughter cell receives an identical set of chromosomes.
146
What is the purpose of separating chromatids during mitosis?
Makes sure each daughter cell has a complete copy of DNA ## Footnote This is crucial for the genetic continuity of cells.
147
What are the four major phases of cell replication?
Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase ## Footnote Followed by cytokinesis
148
What occurs during Prophase?
Chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell.
149
During which phase do chromatids align in the middle of the cell?
Metaphase
150
What happens in Anaphase?
Chromatids separate and move toward the opposite sides of the cell.
151
What characterizes Telophase?
Nucleoli and nuclear membranes start to form, and chromosomes return to chromatin form.
152
What is the final step of cell replication called?
Cytokinesis
153
Fill in the blank: The cleavage furrow divides the cell into _______.
two distinct cells
154
What regulates cellular division?
Growth factors like hormones, contact inhibition, surrounding cells, increasing efficiency, larger cells are less efficient ## Footnote Growth factors are substances that promote cell growth and division, while contact inhibition refers to the process where cells stop dividing when they come into contact with each other.
155
What are growth factors?
Hormones that promote cell growth and division ## Footnote Growth factors are essential for various cellular processes, including proliferation and differentiation.
156
What is contact inhibition?
The process where cells stop dividing when they come into contact with each other ## Footnote Contact inhibition is a crucial mechanism that prevents overcrowding of cells.
157
What happens if a cell is surrounded?
It won’t divide ## Footnote This is part of the contact inhibition mechanism that regulates cellular division.
158
How does increasing efficiency relate to cellular division?
Larger cells are less efficient ## Footnote As cells grow larger, their volume increases faster than their surface area, affecting their efficiency in nutrient uptake and waste removal.
159
What can stem cells do?
Stem cells can differentiate into specific cell types. ## Footnote Stem cells have the unique ability to develop into various specialized cells.
160
What happens to specific genes during differentiation?
Specific genes are turned on during differentiation. ## Footnote This process is essential for the development of specialized functions in cells.
161
What role do transcription factors play in differentiation?
Transcription factors turn on necessary genes. ## Footnote These proteins regulate gene expression to facilitate the differentiation process.
162
What is produced when specific genes are turned on in stem cells?
Turning specific genes on in stem cells produces certain proteins needed for the differentiated cell’s function. ## Footnote These proteins are crucial for the specialized activities of the mature cell.
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