1
Q
biomolecule –
A
a molecule synthesized by living organisms
2
Q
macromolecule –
A
a biopolymer; examples include polypeptides and DNA
3
Q
metabolism –
A
he sum total of all reactions in a living organism
4
Q
A
5
Q
A
6
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
the ability of living organisms to regulate their metabolism despite variability in their internal and external environments
Homeostasis is crucial for maintaining stable conditions necessary for survival.
7
Q
Define enzyme.
A
biomolecular catalyst
Enzymes speed up chemical reactions in biological processes.
8
Q
A
9
Q
What does DNA stand for?
A
deoxyribonucleic acid
DNA consists of two antiparallel polynucleotide strands that contain genetic information which controls cell function.
10
Q
Define genetic information.
A
DNA sequences that determine the linear sequence of amino acids in proteins or the nucleotide sequence of diverse types of RNA
This information is crucial for the synthesis of proteins and the functioning of cells.
11
Q
What is the function of the insulin receptor?
A
Protein molecule on surface of certain cells that initiates the uptake of glucose upon binding of insulin
This process is essential for regulating blood sugar levels.
12
Q
What is a mutation?
A
A change in the linear sequence of nucleotides in DNA
Mutations can lead to variations in traits and can affect protein function.
13
Q
What is a hierarchically organized system?
A
Systems that consist of an organization pattern from smallest atom to the largest living organism
This concept illustrates the complexity and interconnectivity of biological structures.
14
Q
any modification in the nucleotide sequence of a gene.
A
A mutation
15
Q
are changes that have either been repaired or have no observable effect.
A
Silent mutations
16
Q
Harmful mutations
A
limit the reproductive success of offspring.
17
Q
molecule that binds to a specific receptor protein
A
A signal molecule
18
Q
The binding of insulin to insulin receptor molecules on the cell surface initiates the uptake
A
of glucose.
19
Q
While most mutations are silent and some are harmful, occasionally mutations can be beneficial and allow
A
an organism to obtain a competitive advantage over other members of their species (often the exploitation of energy resources).
20
Q
Evolution, which occurs in response to selection pressure, is the result of the cumulative effect of
A
favorable mutations in combination with other genetic changes (e.g., gene duplications) over many generations.
21
Q
Properties that all cells have include
A
an external membrane that separates them from their environment and regulates the transport of substances into and out of the cell, and they are all composed of the same classes of biomolecules.
22
Q
Define hydrocarbon.
A
Hydrophobic molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms
Hydrocarbons are the basic building blocks of many organic compounds.
23
Q
What does hydrophilic mean?
A
Capable of hydrogen bonding with water and polar biomolecules
Hydrophilic substances tend to dissolve in water.
24
Q
Define hydrophobic.
A
Incapable of hydrogen bonding with water and polar biomolecules
Hydrophobic substances do not mix well with water.
25
What is a **functional group**?
Group of atoms within an organic molecule with distinct chemical properties
## Footnote
Functional groups determine the characteristics and reactivity of organic compounds.
26
What does **R group** refer to in amino acids?
Group of atoms that make up a side chain in amino acids
## Footnote
The R group varies among different amino acids and determines their unique properties.
27
28
Define **hydrocarbon**.
Hydrophobic molecules composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms
## Footnote
Hydrocarbons are the fundamental building blocks of many organic compounds.
29
Define **hydrophilic**.
Capable of hydrogen bonding with water and polar biomolecules
## Footnote
Hydrophilic substances tend to dissolve in water.
30
Define **hydrophobic**.
Incapable of hydrogen bonding with water and polar biomolecules
## Footnote
Hydrophobic substances do not mix well with water.
31
Define **functional group**.
Group of atoms within an organic molecule with distinct chemical properties
## Footnote
Functional groups determine the characteristics and reactivity of organic compounds.
32
Define **R group**.
Group of atoms that make up a side chain in amino acids
## Footnote
The R group varies among different amino acids, influencing their properties.
33
Define **carbonyl group**.
A polar functional group in which a carbon atom is connected to an oxygen atom by a double bond
## Footnote
Carbonyl groups are key components in many organic molecules.
34
Define **carboxyl group**.
A weakly acidic functional group in which a carbon atom is connected to both an alcohol and a carbonyl group
## Footnote
Carboxyl groups are characteristic of carboxylic acids.
35
Define **amino group**.
Weakly basic functional group in which one or two hydrogens are connected to a nitrogen atom
## Footnote
Amino groups are found in amino acids and contribute to their basicity.
36
Define **hydroxyl group**.
A polar group in which an oxygen atom is directly connected to a hydrogen atom
## Footnote
Hydroxyl groups are characteristic of alcohols.
37
Define **peptide bond**.
An amide linkage formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the activated carboxyl group of another
## Footnote
Peptide bonds link amino acids in proteins.
38
Define **polypeptide**.
An amino acid polymer with more than 50 amino acid residues
## Footnote
Polypeptides are chains that can fold into functional proteins.
39
Define **peptide**.
An amino acid polymer with fewer than 50 amino acid residues
## Footnote
Peptides can have various biological functions.
40
Define **protein**.
A macromolecule composed of one or more polypeptides
## Footnote
Proteins perform a wide range of functions in biological systems.
41
Define **standard amino acids**.
20 amino acids commonly found in polypeptides: each consists of a specific R group, an amino group, and a carboxyl group attached to the same α-carbon atom
## Footnote
These amino acids are the building blocks of proteins.
42
Define **neurotransmitter**.
Signal molecules released by nerve cells
## Footnote
Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in communication between neurons.
43
Define **sugar**.
A polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone; the basic unit of carbohydrates
## Footnote
Sugars are essential energy sources for living organisms.
44
Define **glucose**.
An aldohexose sugar
## Footnote
Glucose is a primary energy source for cells.
45
Define **monosaccharide**.
A carbohydrate that consists of a single sugar molecule
## Footnote
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates.
46
Define **polysaccharide**.
Polymer of sugar molecules containing more than 20 monosaccharide units
## Footnote
Polysaccharides serve as energy storage and structural components.
47
Define **cellulose**.
A glucose polymer with β (1,4) glycosidic bonds
## Footnote
Cellulose is a major component of plant cell walls.
48
Define **triacylglycerol**.
Esters containing glycerol (three carbon alcohol with three hydroxyl groups) and three fatty acids
## Footnote
Triacylglycerols are the main form of stored energy in animals.
49
Define **phosphoglyceride**.
An ester containing glycerol with two fatty acids and a phosphoric acid
## Footnote
Phosphoglycerides are key components of cell membranes.
50
Define **fatty acid**.
Monocarboxylic acid, represented by R-COOH, in which R is an alkyl group that contains carbon and hydrogen atoms
## Footnote
Fatty acids are important for energy storage and membrane structure.
51
Define **saturated fatty acid**.
Fatty acid that contains no carbon–carbon double bonds
## Footnote
Saturated fatty acids are typically solid at room temperature.
52
Define **unsaturated fatty acid**.
Fatty acid that contains one or more double bonds
## Footnote
Unsaturated fatty acids are usually liquid at room temperature.
53
Define **nucleic acid**.
Polymer of nucleotides linked together by phosphodiester bonds
## Footnote
Nucleic acids are essential for storing and transmitting genetic information.
54
Define **nucleotide**.
Composed of 5-carbon sugar, a nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphate groups
## Footnote
Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids.
55
Define **purine**.
Bicyclic nitrogenous base
## Footnote
Purines include adenine and guanine, which are found in DNA and RNA.
56
Define **pyrimidine**.
Monocyclic nitrogenous base
## Footnote
Pyrimidines include cytosine, thymine, and uracil.
57
Define **deoxyribose**.
5 carbon sugar derived from ribose in which a hydrogen replaces a 2’-hydroxyl group
## Footnote
Deoxyribose is a component of DNA.
58
Define **deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)**.
A polynucleotide that is an organism’s genetic information
## Footnote
DNA carries the hereditary information necessary for life.
59
Define **ribonucleic acid (RNA)**.
A polynucleotide involved in protein synthesis or in diverse roles such as gene regulation
## Footnote
RNA plays crucial roles in translating genetic information into proteins.
60
Define **genome**.
An organism’s entire set of genes or genetic material
## Footnote
The genome contains all the information needed for the growth and functioning of an organism.
61
Define **transcription**.
Process where RNA molecules are synthesized from a DNA template
## Footnote
Transcription is the first step in gene expression.
62
Define **fructose**.
A ketohexose sugar
## Footnote
Fructose is found in many plants and is a component of sucrose.
63
What does **rRNA** stand for?
Ribosomal RNA
## Footnote
rRNA is a key component of ribosomes.
64
What does **tRNA** stand for?
Transfer RNA
## Footnote
tRNA is responsible for bringing amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.
65
What does **mRNA** stand for?
Messenger RNA
## Footnote
mRNA carries the genetic information from DNA to the ribosome.
66
What does **siRNA** stand for?
Small interfering RNA
## Footnote
siRNA is involved in the regulation of gene expression.
67
What does **miRNA** stand for?
Micro RNA
## Footnote
miRNA plays a role in regulating gene expression at the post-transcriptional level.
68
Define **ribosome**.
Large complex supramolecular structures composed of rRNA and proteins; converts mRNA base sequence to amino acid sequence in a polypeptide
## Footnote
Ribosomes are essential for protein synthesis.
69
Define **transcription factor**.
A protein that regulates the synthesis of specific RNAs by binding to DNA sequences called response elements
## Footnote
Transcription factors are crucial for gene regulation.
70
Define **signal molecules**.
General term for molecules that provide cells with information from their environments; initiates a signal transduction mechanism when it binds to a specific receptor molecule
## Footnote
Signal molecules play a key role in cellular communication.
71
Define **response element**.
A DNA sequence within the promoter of genes; transcription is triggered when specific hormone receptor complex or transcription factor binds
## Footnote
Response elements are critical for gene expression regulation.
72
Define **RNA interference**.
Process in which RNA molecules inhibit/neutralize mRNA molecules, thereby inhibiting (or silencing) gene expression or translation; antiviral defense mechanism
## Footnote
RNA interference is a vital mechanism for regulating gene expression and defending against viruses.
73
major elements in biomolecules.
Carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus
74
Amino acids are components
of peptides and proteins.
75
Monosaccharides are components of
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
76
Nucleotides are the components of
f nucleic acids.
77
Fatty acids are components of
several types of lipid molecules (e.g., triacylglycerols and phospholipids)
78
The roles of carbohydrates include structural components such as
cellulose, recognition elements on the surface of cells, and energy storage molecules such as starch.
79
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) contains
high-energy bonds that cells use to drive cellular processes
80
The functions of fatty acids include
energy storage and components of lipid molecules within cell membranes. Some fatty acids are also precursors to hormones.
81
Sugars function as
energy sources and as components of polysaccharides (such as starch, cellulose, glycogen, and chitin).
82
Nucleotides contain
the sugars ribose or deoxyribose.
83
Glycoproteins and glycolipids located on cell membranes also contain
sugars and play critical roles in many cellular interactions.
84
Nucleotides are involved in energy transformations. They are also components of
DNA and RNA.
85
If the bonds between carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen were either more or less stable, their reactivity
would be altered.
86
The C–H bonds of fatty acids are the most
reduced form of carbon found in biomolecules.
Oxidation of these molecules to form carbon dioxide—the most oxidized form of carbon—has the highest energy yield.
87
hydrophobic fatty acids are stored without wqater so their storage is more
compact than that of polysaccharides.
88
89
What is **hydrolysis**?
a chemical reaction in which a chemical bond is cleaved by water
## Footnote
Hydrolysis is often involved in the breakdown of complex molecules.
90
Define **nucleophilic substitution**.
a reaction in which an atom or group substitutes for another atom or group
## Footnote
This type of reaction is common in organic chemistry.
91
What is an **elimination reaction**?
a chemical reaction in which a double bond is formed when atoms in a molecule are removed
## Footnote
Elimination reactions are important in the formation of alkenes.
92
What characterizes a **hydration reaction**?
a type of addition reaction in which water is added to a carbon–carbon double bond
## Footnote
This reaction is crucial in organic synthesis.
93
What is an **isomerization reaction**?
a reaction that involves the intermolecular rearrangement of atoms or groups
## Footnote
Isomerization can lead to different structural forms of a compound.
94
Define **nucleophile**.
an atom or group with an unshared pair of electrons that is involved in a displacement (nucleophilic substitution) reaction
## Footnote
Nucleophiles are essential in many chemical reactions.
95
What is an **electrophile**?
an electron-deficient species
## Footnote
Electrophiles are attracted to nucleophiles in chemical reactions.
96
What is a **leaving group**?
the outgoing nucleophile that leaves with its electron pair
## Footnote
The stability of the leaving group affects the rate of the reaction.
97
Define **addition reaction**.
two molecules combining to form a single product
## Footnote
Addition reactions are fundamental in organic chemistry.
98
What is an **anhydride**?
a molecule containing two carbonyl groups linked through an oxygen atom
## Footnote
Anhydrides are often used in organic synthesis.
99
What does **adenosine triphosphate** (ATP) represent?
the principal energy carrier molecule in living organisms
## Footnote
ATP is crucial for energy transfer in cells.
100
Define **redox reaction**.
a transfer of electrons from a donor to an electron acceptor
## Footnote
Redox reactions are fundamental to many biological processes.
101
What is an **oxidizing agent**?
atom or group reduced during an oxidation–reduction reaction
## Footnote
Oxidizing agents facilitate the oxidation of other substances.
102
What is a **reducing agent**?
atom or group oxidized during an oxidation–reduction reaction
## Footnote
Reducing agents donate electrons to other substances.
103
What does **NADH** stand for?
reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
## Footnote
NADH plays a key role in cellular respiration.
104
Define **hydride ion**.
an anion with one proton and two electrons (H:-)
## Footnote
Hydride ions are important in various chemical reactions.
105
What is an **oxidation reaction**?
the transfer of electrons from a donor to an electron acceptor
## Footnote
Oxidation reactions are integral to energy production in cells.
106
What is **energy** in a biological context?
the capacity to do work
## Footnote
Energy is essential for all biological processes.
107
What does **FAD** represent?
oxidized form of flavin adenine dinucleotide
## Footnote
FAD is involved in various metabolic reactions.
108
What is an **electron transport pathway**?
a series of associated membrane embedded electron carrier molecules
## Footnote
This pathway is crucial for ATP production in cells.
109
Define **coenzyme**.
small molecules that are required for the functioning of certain enzymes
## Footnote
Coenzymes often act as carriers of small molecular groups or electrons.
110
What is an **anabolic pathway**?
pathway in which small precursors are used to generate more complex molecules
## Footnote
Anabolic pathways require energy input.
111
What is a **catabolic pathway**?
pathway in which large complex molecules are degraded into simpler products
## Footnote
Catabolic pathways release energy.
112
Define **signal transduction pathway**.
a pathway that permits a cell to receive and respond to signals from its environment
## Footnote
Signal transduction is vital for cellular communication.
113
What is **glycolysis**?
a 10-reaction pathway that degrades glucose to two pyruvates to generate energy
## Footnote
Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration.
114
Define **autotroph**.
an organism that transforms light energy or the energy of various chemicals into the chemical bond energy of biomolecules
## Footnote
Autotrophs are primary producers in ecosystems.
115
What is a **chemoautotroph**?
an organism that transforms energy of various chemicals into chemical bond energy
## Footnote
Chemoautotrophs are often found in extreme environments.
116
Define **photoautotroph**.
an organism that transforms light energy (usually from the sun) into chemical bond energy
## Footnote
Photoautotrophs include plants and some bacteria.
117
What is a **photoheterotroph**?
an organism that uses both light and biomolecules as energy sources
## Footnote
Photoheterotrophs can adapt to varying environmental conditions.
118
Define **chemoheterotroph**.
an organism that uses preformed organic food molecules as its sole source of energy
## Footnote
Chemoheterotrophs include most animals and fungi.
119
Catabolic pathways convert nutrients into small molecules that can be used as
precursors of larger molecules or as energy sources.
120
. Anabolic pathways use
small molecule precursors to synthesize larger, more complex molecules. Molecules that link these processes include ATP and NADPH.
121
Cells use oxidation–reduction reactions to convert
bond energy in biomolecules into higher- energy ATP bonds. Energy is captured as electrons are transferred from reduced molecules to more oxidized ones.
122
Important ions found in living organisms are
Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl-. Many polyatomic ions are also common, such as NH4+, PO43–, and CO32–.
123
Animal cells produce
CO2, H2O, and NH3. Plants dispose of waste products either by degradation or by storage in vacuoles or cell walls.
124
The primary functions of metabolism, the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism, are the
acquisition of and utilization of energy, synthesis of molecules needed for cell structure and functioning (i.e. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids), growth and development, and removal of waste products.
125
The smaller the pKa value of a chemical group, the better
it functions as a leaving group. In other words, its anion is more stable
125
The leaving group in nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions involving thioesters is
RS-
126
When the thioester involved contains coenzyme A, the leaving group is
CoAS-.
127
What is **systems biology**?
A field of study based on engineering principles investigating interactions between components of living organisms
## Footnote
Complex data sets come from genetics, proteomics, and experimental sources such as protein–protein interactions and biochemical reaction fluxes.
128
Define **emergence**.
An event in which the system possesses properties different from the component parts due to interactions between the parts within the system
## Footnote
Emergence highlights how systems can exhibit new characteristics.
129
What does **robustness** refer to in a system?
The ability to remain stable despite fluctuations or damage within a system
## Footnote
Robust systems can withstand disturbances without significant changes.
130
Define **degeneracy**.
The capacity of structurally different parts to perform the same or similar functions
## Footnote
Degeneracy allows for functional redundancy in biological systems.
131
What is a **system** in biological terms?
An interconnected and interacting assembly of biomolecules
## Footnote
Systems can include various components that work together.
132
What is a **network**?
A group of interconnected molecules that perform one or more functions
## Footnote
A metabolic network consists of interconnected biochemical pathways that synthesize and/or degrade biomolecules.
133
Define **metabolic network**.
A network that consists of interconnected biochemical reaction pathways resulting in the synthesis and/or degradation of biomolecules
## Footnote
Reactant and product molecules connect these pathways.
134
What is a **signaling network**?
A network composed of receptor proteins that receive information and trigger signaling pathways
## Footnote
Signaling networks are crucial for cellular communication.
135
Define **module**.
A component or subsystem that performs specific functions
## Footnote
Modules can be part of larger biological systems.
136
What is a **motif**?
A recurring regulatory circuit or element
## Footnote
Motifs play important roles in biological regulation.
137
What are **emergent properties**?
Properties that emerge from interactions among parts, characteristics that cannot be predicted by analyzing component parts
## Footnote
Emergent properties illustrate the complexity of biological systems.
138
Define **negative feedback control**.
The slowing of production due to accumulation of product
## Footnote
Negative feedback helps maintain homeostasis in biological systems.
139
What is **positive feedback control**?
An increase in production due to accumulation of product
## Footnote
Positive feedback can lead to rapid changes in biological processes.
140
Define **bioinformatics**.
The computer-based field that facilitates the analysis of biological sequence data
## Footnote
Bioinformatics is essential for managing large biological data sets.
141
What is **proteomics**?
The investigation of protein synthesis patterns and protein–protein interactions
## Footnote
Proteomics is crucial for understanding cellular functions and interactions.
142
The growth of cells is regulated by
elaborate feedback mechanisms that regulate cell growth. Mutations in just a few of the control genes can disable this elaborate process and result in out-of- control cell growth.
143
Robustness is required for systems that must
withstand fluctuations or damage and yet continue to function in a stable and consistent manner
144
The protection of ferrous iron (Fe2+) against oxidation in hemoglobin is an example of an
emergent property. Fe2+ easily oxidizes in an oxygen atmosphere, but the amino acids in the iron–oxygen binding site allow Fe2+ to exist stably in its reduced form.
145
The capacity of healthy bodies to adapt to high-cholesterol diets by inhibiting cholesterol synthesis is an example of the means by which living organisms regulate
e their metabolic processes.
146
Both normal and tumor cells are robust (i.e., they remain alive despite perturbations). The genetic instability of tumor cells facilitates the
e survival of the tumor
147
Out of the millions of cells in a tumor, there is a distinct possibility that one or more will express the
P-glycoprotein
Under the selection pressure of the drug, these cells will survive. Cells not expressing the P-glycoprotein or another means of detoxifying the drug will die.
BioChem
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