1
Q
What is language
A
- System of communication using sounds or symbols
- Express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
2
Q
-Hierarchical system
A
- components that can be combine to form larger units
- letter to word sentence to text
- consists of a series of small components that can be combined to fomr larger units
3
Q
-Governed by rules
A
-specify ways components can be arranged
-“what is my cat staying” it’s permissible in English
“My cat is saying what” is not permissible in English
-But “my cat is saying what” is permissible in Chinese
-“What is may cate saying” is not permissible in Chinese
4
Q
The Universality of Language
A
- Deaf children invent sign language that is all their own
- All humans with normal capacities develop a language and learn to follow its complex rules
- Language is universal across cultures
- Language development is similar across cultures
- Language are “unique, but the same”
- different words, sounds, and rules
- all have nouns, verbs, negatives, questions, past/present tense
5
Q
-B.F. Skinner (1957) Verbal Behaviour
A
-language learned through reinforcement
6
Q
-Noam Chomsky (1957) Syntactic Structures
A
- human language coded in the genes
- underlying basis of all language is similar
- Children produces sentences they have never heard and the have never been reinforced
- just like we genetically programmed to walk, we are programmed to acquires and use language
- Children produce sentences they have never heard before and that have never been reinforced
- Against the viewpoint of reinforcement, is “I hate you, Mommy”
- That led to the development of psycholinguistics
7
Q
-Psycholinguistics-
A
discover psychological process by which humans acquires and process language
- Comprehension: understand spoken and written language - Speech production: psychological processes of speech production - representation: how is language represented in the mind? - acquisition: learning language including the 2nd language
8
Q
Lexicon
A
Is all the words we know, which has been called our ‘metal dictionary’
9
Q
Semantics
A
Is the meaning of language
10
Q
Lexical semantics
A
The meaning or words
11
Q
-Phonemes:
A
shortest segment of speech that, if changed, changes the meaning of the word
- Bit contains the phonemes b / I / t - Different from letters: one letter can have two phonemes, ‘e’ in ‘we’ and ‘wet’ - The ‘e’ in some is silent, ‘e’ in ‘home’
12
Q
-Morphemes:
A
smallest unit of language that has meaning or grammatical function
- ‘table’ contains a single morpheme. ‘Bed room’ contains two, bed and room
- endings such as ‘s’ and ‘ed’ are morphemes. So tables contains two morphemes table and s
13
Q
Word frequency
A
How often a word appears in that language
14
Q
Word frequency effect
A
Refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than to low
15
Q
What is one reason that may lead to longer eye gazing on a world during a lexical decision task
A
Readers needed more time to access meaning off the low-frequency word
16
Q
Word superiority effect
A
people perceive a letter better when the letter is in a word that when the other is presented a low frequency, or in a non-word
17
Q
Speech segmentation
A
The perception individuals words even though there are no breaks or pauses between words
18
Q
Our ability to each and understand spoken words is affected by
A
- the context in which the words appear
- how frequently we have encountered the words int he past
- our knowledge of statistical regularities of our language
- out knowledge of word meanings
19
Q
Lexical ambiguity
A
- words have more than one meaning
- context clears up ambiguity after all meanings of words have been briefly discussed
- bugs could be insects or hidden listening devices
- my mother bugging me can clear the ambiguity
20
Q
-Phonemic Restoration Effect
A
- ‘fill-in” missing phonemes based on context of sentence and portion or word presented
- Warren (1970) replaced the first /s/ in ‘legislatures’ with a sound of cough when reading the sentence “the state governors met with their respective legislature conveying in the capital city’
- no participants can notice it even when they were informed it was missing
21
Q
-Saffran and colleagues (1996)
A
- 8-month-old infants heard string of 4 artificial ‘words; in random order
- then hear pair of words ‘whole’ and ‘part’
- transitional probabilities of pa followed by Doris is 1 but it is followed by bids is 0.33
22
Q
-context effects
A
-the meaning of sentence affects our ability to access words in the sentence
-walrus is easy to understand in:
-the Eskimos were scared of the Walrus
Than in:
-the bankers were frightened by the walrus
23
Q
-Meaning Dominance:
A
the fact that some words are used more frequently than others
- when words have two or more meanings with different dominance - Balanced dominance - when words have two or more meanings with the same amount of dominance
24
Q
-Lexical priming:
A
- heard ambiguous word have priming effect the words relevant to both meanings
- priming that involved the meanings of words
25
How did Tanenhaus measure lexical priming
Noun-noun condition - word is presented as a a noun, followed by a noun probe stimulus
- verb-noun condition - presented as a verb and followed by a noun probe stimulus
- delays in words lost the priming effect
- flower primed ‘rose’ and ‘rose as noun and verb
26
-Swinney (1979) demonstrated
that although the context clears the ambiguity, participants accessed both meanings right after hearing the word
-reported that he. The lexical prime effect (for the context word) vanished if the best word was presented two or three syllable after the presentation of the prime
27
Meaning dominance
Relative frequency of the meanings of ambiguous words
28
Biased dominance
When one meaning of a word appears more often than the others
29
Syntax
The structure of a sentence
30
Semantics
Meanings of words and sentences
31
Wernicks’s Aphasia
- produced speech that was fluent and grammatically correct but tended to be incoherent
- Wernicke’s patients have more widespread difficulties in understanding and would have difficulty in understanding both sentences. Wernicks’s area in the temporal lobe is thus involved in semantics – understating meaning
32
Broca’s Aphasia
- the Apple was eaten by the girl (no trouble)
- the boy was pushed by the girl (trouble)
- modern researchers have concluded that damage to Broca’s area in the frontal lobe causes problems in syntax – creating meaning based on word order
33
Parsing
How strings of words create meaning is to consider how meaning is created by the groupings of words into phrases
34
Syntactic ambiguity
more than one possible structure, more than one meaning
- So what is the parsing mechanism
- there are two proposals: syntax-first approach and interactionist approach
35
Garden-path sentences (
Illustrate temporal ambiguity - because first one organization is adopted and then, the error is realized, the person shifts to the correct organization
36
Syntax First Approach - Garden-path model
States that as people reads sentence, their groupings of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics (rules that can be applied to rapidly make a decision)
-grammatical structure of sentence determines parsing
37
Late-closure
States that when a person encounters a new word, the person’s
parsing mechanisms assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible
38
Constraint-based approach to parsing (interactionist approach)
- semantics and syntax both influence processing as one reads a sentence
- word meaning
- story context
- scene context
- memory load and prior experience
39
Influence of meaning of word
Two sentences structured the same but with one word changed can drastically influence the overall meaning and understanding of the sentence
40
Influence of story context
Context can influence how the sentence is perceived
41
-Tanenhaus and Trueswell (1995) - influence of scene context
- Visual word paradigm, the context of a scene
- eye movement s change when information suggests revision of interpretation of sentences is necessary
- linguistic and non-linguistic information used simultaneously
- take into account not only information provided by the syntactic structure of the sentence but also by what they called non-linguistic information - information provided by the scene as an example
42
Visual world paradigm
Involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed
43
Influence of memory load and prior experience with language
Less familiar with a language, the longer it can take to recognize a complicated sentence
44
Subject-relative construction
When something is the subject of both the main clause and the embedded clause
45
Object-relative construction
When something is the subject of the main clause, but it replaced by a who in the embedded clause, but is not the object of this clause
46
How do we predict sentence outcomes
During experiments we use words already given to us to make a decision of where the sentence may go and changes as we get more words
47
-Coherence:
representation of the text in one’s mind so that information from one part of the text can be related to information in another part of the text
-most of the coherence in text is created by inference
48
Inferences
Determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text
49
Anaphoric inference
connecting objects/people
| -inferences that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence
50
Instrument inference
- inferences about tools or methods
| - Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk. We can infer than he was using a quill pen
51
Causal inference
- events caused by events in previous sentence
| - Sharon took and aspirin. Her headache went away
52
Situation model
- mental representation of what a text is about
- represent events as if experiencing the situation
- simulates the perceptual and motor (movement) characteristics of the objects and actions in a story
53
-Morrow et al, (1987) reported
that verifying whether two objects were in the same room was easier when two objects were in the room where the protagonist was
54
-physiology of simulations
- approx. the same areas of the cortex are activated by actual movements and reading related action words
- the activation is more extensive for actual movements
55
-Semantic Coordination
good participants have shared knowledge
56
Given-new contract
speaker constructs sentences so they include
- given information - information that the listeners already knows
- new information - information that the listeners is hearing for the first time
- new, can then become given information
57
Producing Language: Conversations
- two or more people talking together
- Dynamic and rapid
- ways to make is easier for the listeners to understand
58
Common-ground
Is the mental knowledge and beliefs shared among conversational parties
-can be established during conversation
59
Referential communication task
A task in which two people are exchanging information in a conversation, when this information involves a reference, identifying something by naming or describing it
60
Entrainment
Synchronization between two partners (part of common-ground)
61
Syntactic coordination
-using similar grammatical constructions
62
Syntactic Priming
- production of a specific grammatical construction by one person increases chances other person will use that construction
- reduces computational load on conversation because it’s easier to copy the form of the others sentence than it is to create your own
63
-Theory of mind:
being able to understand what others feel, think, or believe
64
-Non-verbal communication:
being able to intercept and react to the person’s gestures, facial expressions, tone of voice and other cues for meaning
65
Turn taking
Waiting for your turn in the conversation
66
Cultures, Language & Cognition
| -Sapir -Whorf Hypothesis: language influences thought
- two cultures had difference in how participants assigned names (categories) to color chips
- categorical perception
- stimuli in the same categories are more difficult to discriminate from one another than stimuli in two different categories
- English discriminated more easily between blue and green then Breinmo. But Berinmo discriminated more easily between wor and not than English
- differences in the way names were assigned to colors affect the ability to tell the difference between colors
- Winawer and cowor
67
-Winawer and coworker (2007)
-two cultures had difference in how participants responded to blue squares based on how they were categorized (Russians had longer reaction time in both, but faster in different categories, English was faster in both but faster with same category)
68
Music and Language
- music as the ‘language of emotion’
- music created emotion through sounds that have no meaning
- language , on the other hand, creates emotions using meaningful words
69
-Prosody:
the pattern of intonation and rhythm in spoken language
- often created emotion in the spoken language (a speaker’s ‘soaring oratory’)
- language combines words and music combines tones to create structures sequences that unfold over time
70
Music and language Task Broca’s aphasia
They performed poorly in both categories
71
Music and language processing
There is some overlap, but there are some separate functions
Cognitive Psycho - 258
flashcards
Decks in class (13)
# Cards
-
Chapter 6 - Long term memory (Midterm 2)55
-
Chapter 7 - ENCODING, Retrieval, and Consolidation55
-
Chapter 8 - Everyday Memory and Memory Errors59
-
Chapter 9 - Conceptual Knowledge73
-
Chapter 10 - Visual Imagery58
-
Chapter 11 -Language71
-
Chapter 12 - Problem Solving & Creativity44
-
Chapter 13 - Judgement, Decisions and Reasoning59
-
Chapter 1 - Studying the Mind34
-
Chapter 2 - Cognitive Neuroscience38
-
Chapter 3 - Perception48
-
Chapter 4 - Attention66
-
Chapter 5 - Short-Term and Working Memory41
