1
Q
What is a Problem?
A
- an obstacle between a present state and a goal
- not immediately obvious how to get around the obstacle
- difficult
2
Q
Gestalt approach
A
- representing a problem in the mind
- Restructuring: changes the problem’s representation
- Kohler’s “circle” problem
3
Q
-Restructuring:
A
changes the problem’s representation
4
Q
Insight Problem-Solving
A
- sudden realization of a problem’s solution
- often requires restructuring the problem
5
Q
-Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987)
A
-Insight: triangle problem, chain problem
-non-insight: algebra
Warmth judgments every 15 seconds
-insight problems solved suddenly
-no insight problems solved gradually
6
Q
Non-insight problems (analytically based problems)
A
Solved by a process of systemic analysis, often using techniques from our own experience
7
Q
-Functional Fixedness:
A
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions
- candle problem: seeing boxes as containers inhibited using them as supports
- two string problem: function of pliers gets in the way of seeing them as a weight
8
Q
-Mental set
A
- a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
- based on a person’s past experiences with the problem (or similar problems)
- water-jug problem: given mental set inhibited participants from using simpler solution
9
Q
Information Processing Approach
-Newell and Simon
A
- problem Space
- initial state - conditions at the beginning
- intermediate states - conditions at the middle of puzzle or each action creates an intermediate state
- all of which make up the problem space
- goal states -what it should be when complete
10
Q
- Tower of Hanoi
- operators:
A
actions taking the problem from one state to another. There are rules that specify which moves are allowed and which are not
11
Q
-Means-end analysis –
A
reduce differences between initial and goal states
-sub goals: create intermediate states closer to goal
12
Q
Importance of how a Problem is Stated
-mutilated-checkerboard problem
A
- conditions: differed in how much information provided about the squares
- easier to solve when information is provided that points toward the correct representation of the problem
- all boards had the same layout and same solution, but the way the problem was stated, changed how it was solved
13
Q
-think-aloud protocol
A
- say aloud what one is thinking
- shift in how one perceives elements of a problem
14
Q
-Analogical transfer:
A
the transfer from one problem to another
15
Q
Analogical problem solving
A
Using past problems solved in the past, to try and solve a new problem
16
Q
Target problem
A
Problem trying to solve
17
Q
Source problem
A
Problem that shares similarities and that illustrates how to solve the target problem
18
Q
-Gick and Holyoak
A
- noticing relationships between the problems is crucial and once they do they typically move on to next step
- mapping - correspondence between source and target
- applying mapping
- noticing and mapping are the most difficult steps
19
Q
-Duncker’s Radiation Problem
A
- analogies aid problem-solving
- often hints must be given to notice connection
- surface features get in the way
- structural features must be used
- but most people cannot use analogies to solve p
20
Q
-Analogical encoding:
A
Process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them are determined
21
Q
Trade-off strategy
A
Refers to a negotiating strategy in which one persons says to another “ill give you A, if you give me B”
22
Q
Contingency strategy
A
Person gets what they want if something they want happens
23
Q
-Analogical paradox:
A
it can be difficult to apply analogies in the lab, but people routinely use analogies in real world settings
24
Q
-In Vivo problem solving research
A
- people are observed to determine how they solve problems in the real world
- advantage – naturalistic setting
- disadvantages – time-consuming, cannot isolate and control variable
25
-Lightbulb problem
- regular version: form one direction, less laser is not enough, Placing more lasers from the same directions will break the glass. So laser beam from different directions to fuse two parts of the filament into one and not break the fragile glass surrounding the filament
- insufficient-intensity version: form one direction, less laser is not enough, so place lasers from different direction to get enough lasers
- but not mentioned placing more lasers from the same direction will break the glass
- high-surface similarities (laser vs ray) aid analogical problem solving
- 80% of participants knew radiation problem can solve lightbulb problem
- 30% participants knew fortress problem can solve lightbulb problem
- making structural features more obvious aids analogical problem solving
- participants who read fragile glass version can transfer to radiation problem (80%) but participants who read insufficient version cannot transfer to radiation problem (onlyy 10%)
26
How experts solve problems
| -what is an expert?
- a person who, by devoting a large amount of time to learning about a field and practicing and applying that learning, have become acknowledged as being extremely knowledgeable or skilled in that field
- experts solve problems in their field faster and with a higher success rate than beginners
- experts possess more knowledge about their fields
27
How is expert’s knowledge organized
- knowledge is organized so it can be accessed when needed to work on a problem
- Novice: surface features
- Expert: structural features
28
More expert facts
- experts spend more time analyzing the problem
- experts are not better than novices when given problems outside their field
- experts less likely to be open to new ways of looking at problems
29
Creativity
- innovative thinking
- novel ideas
- new connections between existing ideas
- must be useful
30
divergent thinking:
open-ended; large number of potential ‘solutions’
31
Creative problem solving
- often based an analogies
- generating ideas
- evaluating the ideas
- based on these two steps
32
-design fixation
- fixated on what not to do as demonstrated by sample
| - fixation can inhibit problem solving
33
-Creation cognition:
technique to train people to think creatively
-pre-inventive forms: ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
34
Group brainstorming
Encourage people to freely express ideas that might be useful in solving the problem
35
Creativity, Mental Illness and the Open Mind
- latent inhibition is a the capacity to screen out stimuli that are considered irrelevant
- the link between LI and creativity is that reduced LI is associated with both mental illness and with enhanced creativity
36
-Chi and Snyder (2012)
-deactivated left anterior temporal lobe causing people the think “outside the box” in nine-dot problem
37
-Kounios and Coworkers (2006): “The prepared mind”
- used EEG on compound remote-associate problem
- frontal local activity increased before insight solutions
- occipital lobe activity increased before non insight solutions
38
- None of Chi and Snyder’s (2011,2012) subjects were able to
solve the problem, but when their ATL was deactivated by transcranial magnetic stimulation, 40 percent of the subjects were able to solve the problem. This matches the 40 percent who can solve the problem if they are told that the solution involves drawing lines outside the square.
-Chi and Snyder concluded that we find the problem difficult because our brains are wired to interpret the world in certain ways, based on past experience
39
Deactivating the ATL
Let people “think outside the box”
40
Default mode network DMN
- activity increases when attention isn’t focuses on task and decreases with a person is involved in a specific task
- incubation: getting ideas after taking “time out” from working on a problem
41
-Mayeselss and coworkers (2015)
Participants suggest alternate uses for an object
| -higher originality ratings associated with higher activity if structures in default mode network
42
-Ellamil et al (2012)
- regions of default mode network (DMN) and executive control network (ECN) more strongly activated during idea evaluation than idea generation
- normally thought that DMN and ECN work in opposition
- creative thinking is different, especially during idea evaluation
43
Executive control network ECN
- which is involved in directing attention as a person is a carrying out tasks
- generating and evaluating: ECN and DMN are both activated for this process
- thought to oppose DMN because it. Focuses on attention when DMN is opposite but they both are active during these processes
44
Things Creative People Do Differently
- Daydreaming
- volitional daydreaming: purposeful mind wandering
- Solitude
- avoiding distractions; giving the mind space and time to make new connections and find meaning
- mindfulness
- focused attention meditation: focus on one thing, and return to it when distracted
- open monitoring meditation: pay attention to whatever comes up and follow it until the next thing
Cognitive Psycho - 258
flashcards
Decks in class (13)
# Cards
-
Chapter 6 - Long term memory (Midterm 2)55
-
Chapter 7 - ENCODING, Retrieval, and Consolidation55
-
Chapter 8 - Everyday Memory and Memory Errors59
-
Chapter 9 - Conceptual Knowledge73
-
Chapter 10 - Visual Imagery58
-
Chapter 11 -Language71
-
Chapter 12 - Problem Solving & Creativity44
-
Chapter 13 - Judgement, Decisions and Reasoning59
-
Chapter 1 - Studying the Mind34
-
Chapter 2 - Cognitive Neuroscience38
-
Chapter 3 - Perception48
-
Chapter 4 - Attention66
-
Chapter 5 - Short-Term and Working Memory41
