1
Q
phonemes
A
- fundamental language sounds
- individual sound units whose concatenation produces morphenes
2
Q
morphemes
A
smallest meaningful units of words, whose combination forms a word
base, affix, inflection
3
Q
base
A
morpheme
ex: do in undo
4
Q
affix
A
morpheme
ex: un in undo, er in doer
5
Q
inflection
A
morpheme
ex: ing in doing, s in girls
6
Q
lexicon
A
- memory store that contains words and their meanings
- collection of all words and their meanings - does not include conceptual knowledge
7
Q
syntax
A
- words strung together in patterns that conform to the rules of grammar
- appropriate choice of verb tense
8
Q
semantics
A
meaning connected to words and sentences
9
Q
prosody
A
- tone of voice
- can modify the literal meaning of words by varying stress, speech, and rhythm
10
Q
discourse
A
- highest level of language processing
- stringing together sentences to form a meaningful narrative
11
Q
to produce sound
A
enables human’s to produce sound consists of two sets of parts
- source
- filters: the length and shape of vocal tract determine sound characteristics
- Air exhaled from the lungs drives oscillation of the vocal cords, also termed the vocal folds, located in the larynx. The acoustical energy generated then passes through the vocal tract and finally out to the nostrils and lips.
12
Q
vocal cords
A
folds of mucous membrane attached to the vocal muscles
13
Q
larynx
A
voice box, organ of voice
14
Q
speech anatomy in humans vs apes
A
- human oral cavity is longer than in other apes
- human larynx is situated much lower in the throat
15
Q
four core skills underlie human language:
A
- categorizing
- category labeling
- sequencing behaviors
- mimicry
16
Q
categorization
of human language
A
- brain must determine which of myriad kinds of sensory information reaching the cortex corresponds to a given object in the external world
- Assigning tags to information makes it easier to perceive the information itself and to retrieve it later when needed
- ventral visual stream: (coursing through the temporal lobes) participates in object categorization
- dorsal stream: may also participate in object categorization by making relatively automatic distinctions between objects such as plant versus animal, or human versus non-human
17
Q
ventral visual stream
A
(coursing through the temporal lobes)
participates in object categorization
18
Q
dorsal visual stream
A
may also participate in object categorization by making relatively automatic distinctions between objects such as plant versus animal, or human versus non-human
19
Q
labeling categories
A
- categorizing system can stimulate the production of word forms about that concept (the category)
- it can also cause the brain to evoke the concepts in words
- means of organizing events and relations
20
Q
categorization
color blind
A
- a man who was once a painter but is now colorblind, can know and use the words, labels, for colors, even though he can no longer perceive or imagine what those labels mean
- lost his concept of color, but his words can still evoke it
21
Q
categorizationn
brain lesion pts
A
- retain their perception of color, and thus the concept, but have lost the language with which to describe it
- experience colors but cannot attach labels to them
22
Q
labeling a category includes:
and anatomy
A
- identifying it: temporal lobes
- organizing information within the category: function of the motor cortices in the frontal lobe within dorsal visual stream
23
Q
sequencing behavior
language
A
- Left hemisphere structures, associated with language, have a fundamental role in ordering vocal movements, such as those used in speech
- can also sequence face, body, and arm movements to produce non-verbal language
- Sequencing words to represent meaningful actions likely makes use of the same dorsal stream, frontal cortex circuits, that sequence motor action more generally
24
Q
mimicry
language
A
fosters language development
- from birth, babies show a preference for listening to speech over other sounds
- When they begin to babble, they are capable of making the sounds used in all languages.
- also mimic, and subsequently prefer, the language sounds made by people in their lives
- In the formative years, children may add as many as 60 new words each day to their vocabularies.
- mirror neurons of the motor system respond when we see others make movements and also when we make the same movements
- mirror neurons in the cortical language regions may be responsible for our ability to mimic the sounds, words, and actions that comprise language
25
discontinuity theory
language evolved rapidly and appeared suddently (last 200,000 years or so)
* modern language may have evolved from the same language
* cannot speak to the possibility that other languages preceded modern language families
* language may have appeared along with the lowered vocal tract
26
continuity theory
language evolved gradually because similarities in genes and behaviors of ancestral hominid species, when uniquely modified in modern humans, produced language
* language begins in the brain regions that produce movement, but a notable adaption in human language is its specialization for communication
* evolution of vocalizations
* contribution of gestures to language evolution → many animals communicate with movement - when one moves others follow
27
both
discontinuity and continuity theory
Language is what brains do, but a specific form that language takes varies from species to species, and this explains both the origins and the structure of language as humans use it.
* chimp Kanzi made both communicative sounds and sounds when eating
* animals communicate with movement
* We can observe the rudiments of subject-object-verb, SOV syntax, in movements such as reaching for a food item. The subject is a person, the object is the food, and the verb is the reach.
28
* green: broca's areas
* yellow: wernicke's area
29
language areas
fissures and gyri
* includes the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus
* Parts of surrounding gyri, including the ventral parts of the precentral and postcentral gyri, the supramarginal gyrus, the angular gyrus, and the medial temporal gyrus, also lie within the core language regions.
* insula, heschl's gyrus
* parts of the superior temporal gyrus, referred to as the anterior and posterior superior temporal planes, ASTP and PSTP
30
31
insula
a large region of the neocortex, lying within the dorsal bank of the lateral fissure
32
heschl's gyrus
primary auditory cortex
33
planum temporale includes
Heschl's gyrus, ASTP and PSTP
34
brodmann's areas
broca's
wernicke's
other language regions and model probs
* 45 and 44: broca's area
* 22: wernicke's area
* language regions also include parts of areas 4, 9, 1, 2, 3, 40, 39, and 21, as well as the dorsal premotor area 6, also named the supplementary motor area
* This model reconceptualization of the anatomy within and surrounding Broca's area points to a conclusion. Many challenges remain before we fully understand the anatomical basis of language. In addition, many right hemisphere regions also participate in language.
35
wernicke-geschwind model
based entirely on lesion data
comprehension is:
1. extracted from sounds in Wernicke's area
2. passed over the arcuate fasciculus pathway
3. to Broca's area to be articulated as speech
36
contemporary model
language
reading, braille, syntax
temporal and frontal cortices are connected by pairs of dorsal and ventral language pathways, which are viewed as extensions of the dorsal and ventral visual streams
* Information from vision enters into the auditory language pathways via the dorsal and ventral visual streams and contributes to reading.
* Information from body sense regions of the parietal cortex also contributes to the dorsal and ventral language pathways, and likely contributes to touch language such as Braille.
* The dorsal and ventral language pathways are engaged in syntax
* dorsal pathway categorizing sounds in terms of frequency of association
* ventral pathway extracting meaning from the grammatical organization of words.
37
contemporary model
dorsal language pathways
* transform sound information into model representation
* to convert phonological information into articulation
* bottom-up - repeat nonsense words or phrases
* categorizing sounds in terms of frequency of association
38
contemporary model
ventral language pathways
* transform sound information into meaning
* to convert phonological information into semantic information
* top-down - assigning meaning to words and phrases, like when a word has various meanings
* extracting meaning from the grammatical organization of words.
39
cortical stimulation
produces either positive effects, eliciting vocalization, or negative effects, inhibiting the ability to vocalize or to use words properly, including a variety of aphasia-like errors
1. total speech arrest or inability to vocalize spontaneously
* an error that results from stimulation throughout the shaded zones in the figure
2. hesitation and slurred speech
* slurring results primarily from stimulation of the dorsal region of broca's area and ventral facial regions of premotor and motor cortex
3. Distortion and repetition of words and syllables
* stimulating broca and wernickes areas and occasionally face areas
4. number confusion while counting
* stimulating Broca's and Wernicke's area
5. inability to name objects despite retained ability to speak
* When the current is removed, a patient is able to name the object correctly, but naming difficulties arise
* stimulation throughout the anterior, Broca's, and posterior Wernicke's speech zone.
40
TMS
* can be used noninvasively to explore the neural basis of language in healthy people
* can interfere with neuro-function, producing a virtual lesion lasting from tens of milliseconds, to as long as an hour
* relatively easy to use, can be used repeatedly, and when combined with MRI, can allow predetermined brain regions to be examined under controlled experimental conditions
41
TMS drawbacks
1. the stimulator produces a sound that can cure a participant, or subject to the stimulation
2. the stimulation must pass through the skull and maninges, and can cause muscle contractions, discomfort, and pain
3. stimulation does not easily access regions located deep within the sulci
42
TMS used to map specific brain regions
such as
* used to map specific brain regions, such as broca's area as shown in the work of Kim
* A number of brain imaging studies suggest that the anterior region of broca's area is implicated in semantic processing, the processing of the meaning of words.
* While the posterior region of broca's area is implicated in phonological processing, the production of words.
43
word generation task
passively presented words either visually or orally to a passive participant
44
output task
the participant was asked to repeat the word.
45
association task
participant was asked to suggest a use for the object named by the target word
46
Speech Regions Connectome using brain imaging
1. no overlap occurred in visual and auditory activation during the passive task → processing word forms in the two modalities is completely independent
2. during the speaking tasks, bilateral activation occurred in the motor and sensory facial areas and in the supplementary speech area, as well as in the right cerebellum
3. generating verbs activated the frontal lobe, especially the left inferior region including Broca's area
* verb generation task also activated the posterior temporal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and cerebellum
47
Wagner
task: presented participants with a single cue word and four target words
* task - indicate which target word was most closely and globally related to the cue, thus measuring the participant's ability to retrieve meaningful information
* An area in the left premotor cortex just dorsal to Broca's area became active during this task.
48
Martin
asked participants to name tools or animals and subtracted activation produced by the brain response to animals from the brain response to tools
Naming tools activated a region of premotor cortex also activated by imagined hand movements.
49
Damasio
naming persons, animals, and tools activated specific locations in Area 2-E, the inferior temporal lobe
50
how is language mapped
language is mapped onto circuits ordinarily engaged in more primary functions: visual attributes of words in visual areas, auditory attributes in auditory brain regions etc
51
core language networks
* consists of 5 functional modules, each involving a particular function, such as hearing, in yellow, converting sound to meaning, red, or articulating language, purple
* Each model consists of multiple nodes, the circles, that likely serve a common function. That is, a single node could be active in producing phonemes representing animal words or representing word actions, and so on.
52
fedorenko
language networks
* high level language activity, such as a discourse, will involve many functional modules, whereas activity in only a few modules or even a single module will generate a language of function, such as recognizing that a sound is a word
* By interacting with other brain networks, for example an attentional network, language can be focused as might occur when two people hear only each other at a noisy party
53
neural web
* Nodes can be single cells or collections of cells and a web consists of nodes and their two-way connections.
* Any given web will include nodes within primary and secondary auditory areas, as well as within primary and secondary motor regions.
1. If a word contains visual content, the web includes visual brain areas.
2. If it contains motor content, the web includes motor areas.
54
aphasia
may refer to a language disorder apparent in speech, in writing, also called agraphia, or in reading, also called alexia, produced by injury to brain areas specialized for these functions
55
non aphasic distrubances
* disturbances of language due to severe intellectual impairments, to loss of sensory input especially vision and hearing, or to paralysis or incoordination of the musculature of the mouth or hand are not considered aphasic disturbance
* these may accompany aphasia, however, and they complicate its study
56
fluent aphasia
* fluent speech but difficulties either in auditory verbal comprehension or in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences spoken by others
* impairments related mostly to language input or reception
* includes: wernicke, trascortical, conduction, anomic
57
wernicke's aphasia
fluent aphasia
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders
* inability to comprehend words or to arrange sounds into coherent speech, even though word production remains intact
* poor repetition
* word salad
* deficits:
1. classifying sounds
2. producing speech
3. writing
58
transcortical aphasia (isolation syndrome)
fluent aphasia
* people can repeat and understand words and name objects, but cannot speak spontaneously, or they cannot comprehend words
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders, good repetition
* deficits:
1. comprehension poor
* because words fail to arouse associations
2. production poor
* even though word production is abnormal, words are not associated with other cognitive activities in the brain
59
conduction aphasia
fluent aphasia
* fluent, sometimes halting speech, but without articulatory disorders, fairly good comprehension
* people with this disorder can speak easily, name objects and understand speech, but they cannot repeat words
* disconnection between the perceptual word image and the motor systems happened
1. word repetitions
60
anomic aphasia
fluent aphasia
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders
* intact comprehension, production of meaningful speech, and a well-conserved speech repetition,
* have great difficulty finding the names of objects
* Difficulty in finding nouns appear to result from damage throughout the temporal cortex
* verb finding deficits are more likely to come from left frontal injuries
* Although the extent to which the brain differentiates between nouns and verbs may seem surprising, we can see that they have very different functions. Nouns are categorizers. Verbs are action words that form the core, or syntactical structure. It makes sense to find that they are separated in such a way that nouns are a property of brain areas controlling recognition and classifications, while verbs are a property of brain's areas controlling movement.
1. naming objects
61
nonfluent aphasia
continue to understand speech but has to labor to produce it
* person speaks in short phrases interspersed with pauses, makes sound errors and repetitious errors in grammar, and frequently, omits function words
* Only the key words necessary for communication are used
* the deficit is not one of making sounds but rather of switching from one sound to another
* includes: broca, transcortical motor, global
62
broca's aphasia
nonfluent aphasia
slight to laborious articulatory disorder, poor repetition, aggramatism
63
transcortical motor aphasia
nonfluent aphasia
* repetition and naming is good, but spontaneous production of speech is labored
* uncompleted sentences
64
global aphasia
nonfluent aphasia
* speech is labored and comprehension is poor
* poor repetition
65
pure aphasia
selective impairments in reading, writing, or recognizing words in absence of other language disorders
includes: alexia, agraphia, word deafness
66
alexia
pure aphasia
inability to read
67
agraphia
pure aphasia
an inability to write
68
word deafness
pure aphasia
a condition in which a person cannot hear or repeat words
69
language in right hemisphere
right hemisphere also has language abilities
70
split brain patient evident right hemisphere language
* right hemisphere has little or no speech
* good auditory comprehension of language, including both nouns and verbs
* some reading ability, little writing ability
* can recognize words for residual semantic processing
* little understanding of grammatical rules and sentence structures
71
left hemispherectomies
evidence right hemisphere language
* severe deficits in speech, but surprisingly good auditory comprehension
* reading ability limited
* writing usually absent
* language ability like right hemisphere of commissurotomy patients
* right hemisphere capable of language comprehension, especially of auditory material
* ex: aphasia rare after right hemisphere lesions, even after right hemispherectomy, but more subtle linguistic impairments bubble up, including changes in vocabulary selection in responses to complex statements with unusual syntactical construction, and in comprehending metaphor
72
If the left hemisphere is lost early in the development
If the left hemisphere is lost early in the development the right hemisphere can acquire considerable language abilities.
73
right orbital frontal lesions
* reduce verbal fluency and lead to deficits in prosody
* both for comprehending tone of voice
* and for producing emotional vocal tone
74
* fundamental language sounds
* individual sound units whose concatenation produces morphenes
phonemes
75
smallest meaningful units of words, whose combination forms a word
base, affix, inflection
morphemes
76
morpheme
ex: do in undo
base
77
morpheme
ex: un in undo, er in doer
affix
78
morpheme
ex: ing in doing, s in girls
inflection
79
* memory store that contains words and their meanings
* collection of all words and their meanings - does not include conceptual knowledge
lexicon
80
* words strung together in patterns that conform to the rules of grammar
* appropriate choice of verb tense
syntax
81
meaning connected to words and sentences
semantics
82
* tone of voice
* can modify the literal meaning of words by varying stress, speech, and rhythm
prosody
83
* highest level of language processing
* stringing together sentences to form a meaningful narrative
discourse
84
enables human's to produce sound consists of two sets of parts
* source
* filters: the length and shape of vocal tract determine sound characteristics
* Air exhaled from the lungs drives oscillation of the vocal cords, also termed the vocal folds, located in the larynx. The acoustical energy generated then passes through the vocal tract and finally out to the nostrils and lips.
to produce sound
85
folds of mucous membrane attached to the vocal muscles
vocal cords
86
voice box, organ of voice
larynx
87
* human oral cavity is longer than in other apes
* human larynx is situated much lower in the throat
speech anatomy in humans vs apes
88
1. categorizing
2. category labeling
3. sequencing behaviors
4. mimicry
four core skills underlie human language:
89
* brain must determine which of myriad kinds of sensory information reaching the cortex corresponds to a given object in the external world
* Assigning tags to information makes it easier to perceive the information itself and to retrieve it later when needed
* ventral visual stream: (coursing through the temporal lobes) participates in object categorization
* dorsal stream: may also participate in object categorization by making relatively automatic distinctions between objects such as plant versus animal, or human versus non-human
categorization
of human language
90
(coursing through the temporal lobes)
participates in object categorization
ventral visual stream
91
may also participate in object categorization by making relatively automatic distinctions between objects such as plant versus animal, or human versus non-human
dorsal visual stream
92
* categorizing system can stimulate the production of word forms about that concept (the category)
* it can also cause the brain to evoke the concepts in words
* means of organizing events and relations
labeling categories
93
* a man who was once a painter but is now colorblind, can know and use the words, labels, for colors, even though he can no longer perceive or imagine what those labels mean
* lost his concept of color, but his words can still evoke it
categorization
color blind
94
* retain their perception of color, and thus the concept, but have lost the language with which to describe it
* experience colors but cannot attach labels to them
categorizationn
brain lesion pts
95
* identifying it: temporal lobes
* organizing information within the category: function of the motor cortices in the frontal lobe within dorsal visual stream
labeling a category includes:
and anatomy
96
* Left hemisphere structures, associated with language, have a fundamental role in ordering vocal movements, such as those used in speech
* can also sequence face, body, and arm movements to produce non-verbal language
* Sequencing words to represent meaningful actions likely makes use of the same dorsal stream, frontal cortex circuits, that sequence motor action more generally
sequencing behavior
language
97
fosters language development
* from birth, babies show a preference for listening to speech over other sounds
* When they begin to babble, they are capable of making the sounds used in all languages.
* also mimic, and subsequently prefer, the language sounds made by people in their lives
* In the formative years, children may add as many as 60 new words each day to their vocabularies.
* mirror neurons of the motor system respond when we see others make movements and also when we make the same movements
* mirror neurons in the cortical language regions may be responsible for our ability to mimic the sounds, words, and actions that comprise language
mimicry
language
98
language evolved rapidly and appeared suddently (last 200,000 years or so)
* modern language may have evolved from the same language
* cannot speak to the possibility that other languages preceded modern language families
* language may have appeared along with the lowered vocal tract
discontinuity theory
99
language evolved gradually because similarities in genes and behaviors of ancestral hominid species, when uniquely modified in modern humans, produced language
* language begins in the brain regions that produce movement, but a notable adaption in human language is its specialization for communication
* evolution of vocalizations
* contribution of gestures to language evolution → many animals communicate with movement - when one moves others follow
continuity theory
100
Language is what brains do, but a specific form that language takes varies from species to species, and this explains both the origins and the structure of language as humans use it.
* chimp Kanzi made both communicative sounds and sounds when eating
* animals communicate with movement
* We can observe the rudiments of subject-object-verb, SOV syntax, in movements such as reaching for a food item. The subject is a person, the object is the food, and the verb is the reach.
both
discontinuity and continuity theory
101
* includes the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus
* Parts of surrounding gyri, including the ventral parts of the precentral and postcentral gyri, the supramarginal gyrus, the angular gyrus, and the medial temporal gyrus, also lie within the core language regions.
* insula, heschl's gyrus
* parts of the superior temporal gyrus, referred to as the anterior and posterior superior temporal planes, ASTP and PSTP
language areas
fissures and gyri
102
a large region of the neocortex, lying within the dorsal bank of the lateral fissure
insula
103
primary auditory cortex
heschl's gyrus
104
Heschl's gyrus, ASTP and PSTP
planum temporale includes
105
* 45 and 44: broca's area
* 22: wernicke's area
* language regions also include parts of areas 4, 9, 1, 2, 3, 40, 39, and 21, as well as the dorsal premotor area 6, also named the supplementary motor area
* This model reconceptualization of the anatomy within and surrounding Broca's area points to a conclusion. Many challenges remain before we fully understand the anatomical basis of language. In addition, many right hemisphere regions also participate in language.
brodmann's areas
broca's
wernicke's
other language regions and model probs
106
based entirely on lesion data
comprehension is:
1. extracted from sounds in Wernicke's area
2. passed over the arcuate fasciculus pathway
3. to Broca's area to be articulated as speech
wernicke-geschwind model
107
temporal and frontal cortices are connected by pairs of dorsal and ventral language pathways, which are viewed as extensions of the dorsal and ventral visual streams
* Information from vision enters into the auditory language pathways via the dorsal and ventral visual streams and contributes to reading.
* Information from body sense regions of the parietal cortex also contributes to the dorsal and ventral language pathways, and likely contributes to touch language such as Braille.
* The dorsal and ventral language pathways are engaged in syntax
* dorsal pathway categorizing sounds in terms of frequency of association
* ventral pathway extracting meaning from the grammatical organization of words.
contemporary model
108
* proposed to transform sound information into model representation to convert phonological information into articulation
* bottom-up, as occurs when we are asked to repeat nonsense words or phrases.
* dorsal pathway categorizing sounds in terms of frequency of association
contemporary model
dorsal language pathways
109
* proposed to transform sound information into meaning, to convert phonological information into semantic information
* top-down, assigning meaning to words and phrases, like when a word has various meanings
* ventral pathway extracting meaning from the grammatical organization of words.
contemporary model
ventral language pathways
110
produces either positive effects, eliciting vocalization, or negative effects, inhibiting the ability to vocalize or to use words properly, including a variety of aphasia-like errors
1. total speech arrest or inability to vocalize spontaneously
* an error that results from stimulation throughout the shaded zones in the figure
2. hesitation and slurred speech
* slurring results primarily from stimulation of the dorsal region of broca's area and ventral facial regions of premotor and motor cortex
3. Distortion and repetition of words and syllables
* stimulating broca and wernickes areas and occasionally face areas
4. number confusion while counting
* stimulating Broca's and Wernicke's area
5. inability to name objects despite retained ability to speak
* When the current is removed, a patient is able to name the object correctly, but naming difficulties arise
* stimulation throughout the anterior, Broca's, and posterior Wernicke's speech zone.
cortical stimulation
111
* can be used noninvasively to explore the neural basis of language in healthy people
* can interfere with neuro-function, producing a virtual lesion lasting from tens of milliseconds, to as long as an hour
* relatively easy to use, can be used repeatedly, and when combined with MRI, can allow predetermined brain regions to be examined under controlled experimental conditions
TMS
112
1. the stimulator produces a sound that can cure a participant, or subject to the stimulation
2. the stimulation must pass through the skull and maninges, and can cause muscle contractions, discomfort, and pain
3. stimulation does not easily access regions located deep within the sulci
TMS drawbacks
113
* ___ used to map specific brain regions, such as broca's area as shown in the work of Kim
* A number of brain imaging studies suggest that the ___ region of broca's area is implicated in semantic processing, the processing of the meaning of words.
* While the ____ region of broca's area is implicated in phonological processing, the production of words.
TMS used to map specific brain regions
anterior; posterior
114
passively presented words either visually or orally to a passive participant
word generation task
115
the participant was asked to repeat the word.
output task
116
participant was asked to suggest a use for the object named by the target word
association task
117
1. no overlap occurred in visual and auditory activation during the passive task → processing word forms in the two modalities is completely independent
2. during the speaking tasks, bilateral activation occurred in the motor and sensory facial areas and in the supplementary speech area, as well as in the right cerebellum
3. generating verbs activated the frontal lobe, especially the left inferior region including Broca's area
* verb generation task also activated the posterior temporal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and cerebellum
Speech Regions Connectome using brain imaging
118
* task - indicate which target word was most closely and globally related to the cue, thus measuring the participant's ability to retrieve meaningful information
* An area in the left premotor cortex just dorsal to Broca's area became active during this task.
Wagner
task: presented participants with a single cue word and four target words
119
Naming tools activated a region of premotor cortex also activated by imagined hand movements.
Martin
asked participants to name tools or animals and subtracted activation produced by the brain response to animals from the brain response to tools
120
naming persons, animals, and tools activated specific locations in Area 2-E, the inferior temporal lobe
Damasio
121
language is mapped onto circuits ordinarily engaged in more primary functions: visual attributes of words in visual areas, auditory attributes in auditory brain regions etc
how is language mapped
122
* consists of 5 functional modules, each involving a particular function, such as hearing, in yellow, converting sound to meaning, red, or articulating language, purple
* Each model consists of multiple nodes, the circles, that likely serve a common function. That is, a single node could be active in producing phonemes representing animal words or representing word actions, and so on.
core language networks
123
* high level language activity, such as a discourse, will involve many functional modules, whereas activity in only a few modules or even a single module will generate a language of function, such as recognizing that a sound is a word
* By interacting with other brain networks, for example an attentional network, language can be focused as might occur when two people hear only each other at a noisy party
fedorenko
language networks
124
* Nodes can be single cells or collections of cells and a web consists of nodes and their two-way connections.
* Any given web will include nodes within primary and secondary auditory areas, as well as within primary and secondary motor regions.
* The objective of creating neural webs to represent language-related brain regions is not to eventually produce a wiring diagram but rather to illustrate one way that the brain might produce language.
* individual words can take on many different meanings and can represent language in its many forms - spoken or written
1. If a word contains visual content, the web includes visual brain areas.
2. If it contains motor content, the web includes motor areas.
3.
neural web
125
may refer to a language disorder apparent in speech, in writing, also called agraphia, or in reading, also called alexia, produced by injury to brain areas specialized for these functions
aphasia
126
* disturbances of language due to severe intellectual impairments, to loss of sensory input especially vision and hearing, or to paralysis or incoordination of the musculature of the mouth or hand are not considered aphasic disturbance
* these may accompany aphasia, however, and they complicate its study
non aphasic distrubances
127
* fluent speech but difficulties either in auditory verbal comprehension or in the repetition of words, phrases, or sentences spoken by others
* impairments related mostly to language input or reception
fluent aphasia
128
fluent aphasia
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders
* inability to comprehend words or to arrange sounds into coherent speech, even though word production remains intact
* poor repetition
* word salad
* deficits:
1. classifying sounds
2. producing speech
3. writing
wernicke's aphasia
129
fluent aphasia
* people can repeat and understand words and name objects, but cannot speak spontaneously, or they cannot comprehend words, although they can repeat them
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders, good repetition
* deficits:
1. comprehension poor
* because words fail to arouse associations
2. production poor
* even though word production is abnormal, words are not associated with other cognitive activities in the brain
transcortical aphasia (isolation syndrome)
130
fluent aphasia
* fluent, sometimes halting speech, but without articulatory disorders, fairly good comprehension
* people with this disorder can speak easily, name objects and understand speech, but they cannot repeat words
* disconnection between the perceptual word image and the motor systems happened
1. word repetitions
conduction aphasia
131
fluent aphasia
* fluent speech without articulatory disorders
* intact comprehension, production of meaningful speech, and a well-conserved speech repetition,
* have great difficulty finding the names of objects
* Difficulty in finding nouns appear to result from damage throughout the temporal cortex
* verb finding deficits are more likely to come from left frontal injuries
* Although the extent to which the brain differentiates between nouns and verbs may seem surprising, we can see that they have very different functions. Nouns are categorizers. Verbs are action words that form the core, or syntactical structure. It makes sense to find that they are separated in such a way that nouns are a property of brain areas controlling recognition and classifications, while verbs are a property of brain's areas controlling movement.
1. naming objects
anomic aphasia
132
continue to understand speech but has to labor to produce it
* person speaks in short phrases interspersed with pauses, makes sound errors and repetitious errors in grammar, and frequently, omits function words
* Only the key words necessary for communication are used
* the deficit is not one of making sounds but rather of switching from one sound to another
nonfluent aphasia
133
nonfluent aphasia
slight to laborious articulatory disorder, poor repetition, aggramatism
broca's aphasia
134
nonfluent aphasia
* repetition and naming is good, but spontaneous production of speech is labored
* uncompleted sentences
transcortical motor aphasia
135
nonfluent aphasia
* speech is labored and comprehension is poor
* poor repetition
global aphasia
136
selective impairments in reading, writing, or recognizing words in absence of other language disorders
includes: alexia, agraphia, word deafness
pure aphasia
137
pure aphasia
inability to read
alexia
138
pure aphasia
an inability to write
agraphia
139
pure aphasia
a condition in which a person cannot hear or repeat words
word deafness
140
right hemisphere also has language abilities
language in right hemisphere
141
* linguistic abilities of the right hemisphere have been studied systematically, with the use of various techniques for lateralizing input to one hemisphere
* right hemisphere has little or no speech, but surprisingly good auditory comprehension of language, including both nouns and verbs.
* some reading ability, little writing ability
* although the right hemisphere can recognize words for residual semantic processing, it has little understanding of grammatical rules and sentence structures
split brain patient evident right hemisphere language
142
* produces severe deficits in speech, but leaves surprisingly good auditory comprehension
* Reading ability will be limited, and writing is usually absent
* appears to result in language ability reminiscent of those achieved by the right hemisphere of commissurotomy patients
* right hemisphere is actually capable of language comprehension, especially of auditory material, even though it usually does not control speech
* ex: aphasia is rare after right hemisphere lesions, even after right hemispherectomy, but more subtle linguistic impairments bubble up, including changes in vocabulary selection in responses to complex statements with unusual syntactical construction, and in comprehending metaphor
left hemispherectomies
evidence right hemisphere language
143
\_\_\_ lesions reduce verbal fluency and lead to deficits in prosody, both for comprehending tone of voice, and for producing emotional vocal tone
right orbital frontal lesions
144
The vocal intonation that helps us understand the literal meaning of what people say is termed
prosody
145
What we call “grammar” is referred to by linguists as
syntax
146
Which of the following four abilities proposed to be necessary for language is MOST likely to depend on the mirror neuron system?
a. categorization
b. sequencing of behaviors
c. mimicry
d. category labeling
c. mimicr
147
Cases of brain damage in deaf individuals who use sign language suggest that the organization of gestural language
a. has its focus in the right parietal cortex, along with other spatial functions
b. is very similar to that for spoken language, with the left hemisphere dominant for both
c. is inconclusive, as no particular pattern has emerged
d. Actually, no such cases exist, but it would be interesting if they did
b. is very similar to that for spoken language, with the left hemisphere dominant for both
148
Results from electrical stimulation and imaging studies of conscious patients suggest that
a. speech areas occupy a smaller proportion of cortical areas than originally thought on the basis of lesion studies
b. localizationist theories that posit strict separation of speech comprehension and production are incorrect
c. localizationist theories that posit strict separation of speech comprehension and production are largely correct
d. there is surprisingly little variation in the organization of cortical language areas among subjects
b. localizationist theories that posit strict separation of speech comprehension and production are incorrec
149
The effects of direct electrical stimulation of the cortex on language functions have been confirmed using the noninvasive technique of
transcranial magnetic stimulation
150
Aphasias are most commonly seen following blockage of the _____ cerebral artery.
a. left middle
b. right middle
c. left anterior
d. right posterior
a. left middle
151
The most appropriate diagnosis for a 10-year-old child who continually makes mistakes in reading aloud, such that semantically related words are substituted for the printed word (e.g., “puppy” is read as “dog” and “woman” is read as “mother”), would be ...
a. attentional dyslexia
b. deep dyslexia
c. phonological dyslexia
d. word aphasia
b. deep dyslexia
152
Tests of language abilities in split-brain subjects show that the right hemisphere has
a. good language production and comprehension capabilities
b. all the elements required for fluent American sign language use
c. good language comprehension but poor production abilities
d. good language production but poor comprehension abilities
c. good language comprehension but poor production abilities
153
Damage to the right hemisphere affects aspects of language, including
generation and perception of prosody
154
objective of creating neural webs
* to represent language-related brain regions is to illustrate one way that the brain might produce language.
* individual words can take on many different meanings and can represent language in its many forms - spoken or written
