1
Q
define behavioral genetics.
A
an interdisciplinary field of study concerned w/ genetic contributions to individual differences in behavior & personality
2
Q
what is another way to phrase nature & nurture?
A
heritability & environment
3
Q
define chromosomes.
A
structures in the cell nucleus that contain heritable genes
4
Q
define DNA.
A
deoxyribonucleic acid; a double-helix molecule that contains four types of nucleotides
5
Q
define genes.
A
the basic unit of heredity; guides protein synthesis
6
Q
define nucleotides.
A
molecules whose sequences represent the instructions used to create all the proteins in the human body
7
Q
true or false: each cell performs a different function and therefore has different genes.
A
false; different genes are “turned on” or “expressed” for each cell
8
Q
define genotype.
A
the genetic makeup of an organism; the actual genetic code
9
Q
define phenotype.
A
observable characteristics like physical structure or behavior; the expression of the genotype
10
Q
aside from genes, what affects phenotypes?
A
environmental factors (eg nutrition)
11
Q
define the human genome.
A
all of our genes, along w/ noncoding DNA
12
Q
define genome-wide association studies.
A
when scientists look at genes that vary across people to determine whether those variants are consistently observed in people w/ a specific disease/trait compared to those w/out it
13
Q
define linkage studies.
A
studies that take advantage of the tendency of genes close together on a chromosome to be inherited together across generations
14
Q
define genetic markers.
A
DNA segments that vary considerably among individuals & whose locations on chromosomes we already know
15
Q
true or false: locating a gene on a chromosome also tells the researcher about its role.
A
false; expression is much more nuanced than being affected by a single gene
16
Q
define epigenetics.
A
a practice that studies stable changes in the expression of a particular gene that occur w/out changes in DNA base sequences; how different environmental factors affect gene expression
17
Q
true or false: the genome is constantly changing.
A
true; chemical molecules that regulate the activity of genes active & deactivate genome hardware
18
Q
define evolutionary psychologists.
A
psychologists interested in the origins of many human behaviors (eg smiling & laughter), tracing them to the processes of evolution
19
Q
define mental modules.
A
specialized plans in our mind to help us handle specific survival problems
20
Q
true or false: every human activity & capacity is innate.
A
false; not every behavior is adaptive, & many evolved & inherited traits are byproducts of other traits
21
Q
list some innate human characteristics.
A
- infant reflexes
- an interest in novelty
- a desire to explore & manipulate objects
22
Q
define practice play.
A
when infants engage in behavior that will be used for serious purposes when they are adults
23
Q
define sociobiology.
A
an interdisciplinary field that emphasizes evolutionary explanations of social behavior in animals, including humans
24
Q
according to sociobiologists, why do we act the way we do?
A
to maximize our chances of passing on our genes
25
true or false: we still behave like hunter-gatherers from the Pleistocene period.
false; our lives & minds are much more nuanced
26
define heritability.
an estimate of the proportion of total variance in some trait that is attributable to genetic differences among individuals w/in a group; score ranges from 0 to 1
27
true or false: heritability scores can be compared between populations that live in different environments.
false; the respective environments of the populations will uniquely affect the heritability of their traits
28
true or false: highly heritable traits cannot be affected by the environment.
false; eg malnourishment can affect height even though it is highly heritable
29
true or false: in adopted children, their IQ scores are more correlated w/h their biological parents than their adopted ones.
true; our intelligence is more reliant on heritability than environment
30
to what extent do genome-wide association studies show how intelligence is impacted by genetic variants?
4-7%
31
how do genes affect intelligence?
by influencing the development & total volume of gray matter in the brain
32
true or false: conclusions about within-group heritability estimates can be applied to between-group differences.
false; need to account for the difference in environments
33
define neuroscientists.
study the entire nervous system in hopes of gaining a better understanding of it & how it drives behavior
34
define cognitive neuroscientists.
explore the biological foundations of consciousness, perception, memory, & language
35
define social neuroscientists.
focus on the brain basis of processes like social interactions, empathy, & prejudice
36
define affective neuroscientists.
study the nervous system's involvement in emotion, motivation, & stress
37
define behavioral neuroscientists.
study the biology of basic processes like learning, aggression, eating, & sex
38
what makes brain research different from all other kinds of research?
the brain is self-aware
39
define the nervous system.
the body system that gathers & processes information, produces responses to stimuli, & coordinates the workings of different cells
40
define the central nervous system.
receives, processes, interprets, & stores incoming sensory info; includes the brain & the spinal cord; sends out messages to muscles, glands, & internal organs
41
define the spinal cord.
an extension of the brain; runs from the brain's base down the center of the back& serves as a bridge between the brain & the body below the neck
42
define spinal reflexes.
behavior that the spinal cord produces w/out help from the brain, eg pulling your hand away when you touch something hot
43
define the spinal column.
a column of bones that protects the spinal cord
44
define the peripheral nervous system.
contains all portions of the nervous system outside the brain & spinal cord; handles the CNS's input & output
45
define sensory nerves.
carry messages from the receptors in skin, muscles, etc to the spinal cord, which sends them to the brain
46
define motor nerves.
carry orders from the CNS to muscles, glands, & internal organs, enabling us to move & release hormones
47
define the somatic nervous system.
aka the skeletal nervous system; consists of nerves connected to sensory receptors & skeletal muscles that allow voluntary action
48
define the automatic nervous system.
regulates the functioning of blood vessels, glands, & internal organs
49
define the sympathetic nervous system.
an accelerator that mobilizes the body for action & energy output; initiates the fight, flight, or freeze response
50
define the parasympathetic nervous system.
acts like a brake; makes sure things slow down & run smoothly, eg after a dangerous situation
51
define neurons.
the building blocks of the nervous system; transmit info to, from, & w/in the CNS
52
define dendrites.
a neuron's antennae; receive messages from other nerve cells & transmit them toward the cell body
53
define the cell body.
shaped like a sphere or pyramid & includes the nucleus; contains DNA & controls growth & reproduction, contains biochemical machinery for keeping the neuron alive & producing neurochemicals
54
define the axon.
transmits messages away from the cell body to other neurons or glands; can be four thousandths of an inch to a few feet long
55
define axon terminals.
branches at the end of axons that reach the synaptic gap
56
define the myelin sheath.
a layer of fatty material made of glial cells that insulates axons & speeds up the conduction of neural impulses; divided into segments by nodes
57
define nerves.
bundles of the fibres of individual neurons (axons or dendrites) in the peripheral nervous system
58
how many pairs of peripheral nerves does the body have?
43, one on each left & right side of the body
59
define cranial nerves.
nerves that connect directly to the brain
60
define glial cells.
a variety of cell types tat serve support functions for neurons
61
define microglia.
glial cells that engulf debris & mount an immune response
62
define oligodendrocytes.
glial cells that produce extensions that wrap axons in myelin
63
define astrocytes.
glial cells that provide physical support & deliver energy to neurons
64
define neurogenesis.
the production of new neurons from immature stem cells
65
define stem cells.
immature cells that renew themselves & have the potential, w/ the correct environment, to develop into any kind of mature cell
66
what can promote stem cell production & survival?
physical exercise, effortful mental activity, & an enriched environment
67
what can inhibit or kill new cells?
binge drinking, aging, & stress (nicotine can kill)
68
what are two disproven assumptions about neurogenesis?
- severed axons in the spinal cord cannot regrow if you treat them w/ certain nervous system chemicals
- mammals don't produce any more CNS cells after infancy
69
define sensory neurons.
gather info from inside & outside the body
70
define interneurons.
receive info from sensory neurons & decide what to do w/ it
71
define motor neurons.
respond to the stimulation from the sensory neuron if it is deemed strong enough
72
define synapse.
the space where two neurons communicate w/ each other, separated by a miniscule space called the synaptic cleft
73
what charge do ions have on the outside & inside of a neuron?
outside: positive, inside: negative
73
how many communication links are there in the nervous system?
trillions or even quadrillions
74
define action potential.
a wave of electrical voltage; when a positive charge reaches a critical level & the gates in the axon membrane allow even more positively charged sodium inside, making it positively charged & causing it to fire
75
define synaptic vesicles.
tiny sacs in the tip of the axon terminal that open & release a few thousand molecules of a neurotransmitter, which diffuse across the synaptic cleft
76
what happens during uptake?
the neurotransmitters briefly bind w/ receptor sites on the next neuron, like a key fitting in a lock; sits at the axon hillock & it is determined whether they will fire or not
77
what charge does a neuron at rest have?
-70 millivolts
78
true or false: action potentials are a yes/no scenario.
true; if the stimuli is strong enough, neurons will always fire at the same strength
79
what is the threshold for a neuron to fire?
-55 millivolts
80
define reuptake.
a process in which released neurotransmitters are reabsorbed into the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron
81
define SSRI.
selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; help depressed people get more serotonin by preventing reuptake
82
what does a neuron's action depend on?
the net effect of all the messages being received from other neurons
83
define glutamate.
a neurotransmitter that excites the nervous system & is involved in memory & the automatic nervous system; released by about 90% of the brain's neurons
84
define GABA.
a neurotransmitter that inhibits brain activity, lowers arousal, anxiety, & excitation, & facilitates sleep (the major inhibitory neurotransmitter)
85
define acetylcholine.
a neurotransmitter involved w/ movement, attention, memory, & emotion
86
define dopamine.
a neurotransmitter involved w/ control of movement, reward-seeking behavior, cognition, & attention
87
define norepinephrine.
a neurotransmitter involved in memory, attention to new/important stimuli, stress response, dreaming, & the regulation of sleep & mood
88
define serotonin.
a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, mood, & appetite; involved in sensory perception & pain suppression
89
define agonists.
drugs that enhance/mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter, either directly or indirectly
90
define antagonists.
drugs that inhibit the effects of a neurotransmitter
91
define multiple sclerosis.
an autoimmune disease in which microglial cells start attacking the myelin sheath, preventing neurons from firing correctly & successfully
92
define hormones.
long-distance messengers released directly into the bloodstream & produced by the endocrine glands
93
define the endocrine glands.
release hormones; pancreas, ovaries, testes, & adrenal glands
94
true or false: hormones & the nervous system have a loop of communication.
true; affect & are affected by each other
95
define melatonin.
a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that regulates biological rhythm & aids sleep
96
define oxytocin.
a hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that helps w/ uterine contractions during birth & facilitates the creation of breastmilk
97
define adrenal hormones.
hormones produced by the adrenal gland & involved in emotions & stress
98
define cortisol.
an adrenal hormone that increases blood sugar levels & gives a quick burst of energy
99
define epinephrine & norepinephrine.
adrenal hormones that activate the sympathetic (fight or flight) system & enhance memory
100
define sex hormones.
androgens, testosterone, estrogen, & progesterone; secreted by the testes, ovaries, & adrenal glands; act on the brain to guide sexual behavior but can also be involved in learning & memory
101
define endorphins.
a group of chemicals that reduce pain, promote pleasure, & affect appetite, sensual activity, blood pressure, mood, learning, & memory; shoot up when you are afraid/under stress
102
what is an endorphin rush associated with?
bonding, eg in early stages of passionate love between adults
103
define the lesion method.
the removal or disabling of an animal's brain structure to gain better understanding of its function (not used on humans unless in certain case studies w/ existing brain trauma)
104
define transcranial magnetic stimulation.
delivers a large current through a wire coil on the person’s head
105
define transcranial direct current stimulation.
a small electrical current to a specific area of the frontal cortex to assess what function each area could have
106
define transcranial alternating current stimulation.
applying low-intensity waves to mimic different brain wave pattern
107
define electroencephalogram.
a recording of neural activity detected by electrodes, not very specific
108
define event-related potentials.
waveforms of neural activity associated w/ specific stimuli or events
109
define a positron emission tomography scan.
records biochemical changes in the brain as they’re happening; inject someone w/ a glucose-like fluid to see where brain activity is taking place
110
define magnetic resonance image.
see live activity in the brain but not super detailed
111
define a functional MRI.
looks at different oxygen levels in your brain by overlaying several different images
112
true or false: using highly developed brain technology means it is no longer necessary to use critical thinking.
false; you need to be able to interpret the info you receive
113
true or false: complex brain behavior can be reduced to single locations in the brain
false; activity is based on many different brain functions
114
define the brain stem.
the base of the brain, including the medulla, pons, & RAS
115
define the medulla.
controls automatic functions like heartbeat & breathing
116
define the pons.
involved in sleeping, waking, & dreaming; where melatonin is released
117
define the RAS.
the reticular activating system; screens incoming info & is responsible for alertness; all stimuli passes through it
118
define the cerebellum.
contributes to balance & coordination, fine motor skills, & cognitive & emotional learning; the "lesser brain"
119
define the thamalus.
directs sensory messages to centers in the brain, except for smell
120
define the olfactory bulb.
contains specialized cells for identifying smells
121
why can smells cue specific memories?
the olfactory bulb is near the amygdala & the hypothalamus
122
define the hypothalamus.
involved in emotion & drives that are vital to survival; maintains homeostasis & sends chemicals to the pituitary gland to regulate hormones
123
define homeostasis.
the body's steady, natural state; biological clock that controls daily rhythms
124
define the pituitary gland.
the "master gland" that regulates other glands & hormones
125
define the limbic system.
the border between the higher & lower parts of the brain; structures in this area are involved w/ emotions like anger & fear
126
define the amygdala.
evaluates sensory info & determines its biological impact; assesses stimuli
127
what do overactive & underactive amygdalas result in?
Overactive: heightened stress & anxiety; underactive: lack of fear, eg psychopaths
128
define the hippocampus.
important for forming new memories; have two; focused on declarative memories & binding stimuli together into singular memories for later retrieval
129
define the cerebrum.
contains most of the brain's circuitry; divided into two cerebral hemispheres
130
define the corpus callosum.
a bundle of nerve fibres that connect the two cerebral hemispheres
131
define the cerebral cortex.
a collection of several thin layers of cells covering the cerebrum, responsible for higher mental functions; densely packed w/ neurons; "gray matter"
132
define hemispheric lateralization.
the phenomenon hat the right hemisphere is in charge of the left side of the body & vice versa
133
why is the brain wrinkled?
to allow for a greater surface area for neurons
134
define the occipital lobe.
the visual cortex
135
define the parietal love.
includes the somatosensory cortex, which receives info about pressure, pain, touch, & temp
136
define hemispatial neglect.
when damage to areas of the parietal lobe cause a lack of awareness of spatial relationships, eg neglecting things on the left side of your vision
137
define the temporal lobe.
the auditory cortex; includes Wernicke's Area (involved in language comprehension)
138
define the frontal lobe.
includes the motor cortex, which issues orders to muscles to produce voluntary movement; includes Broca's Area, which handles speech production
139
define the association cortex.
part of the prefrontal cortex; involved in higher mental processes like social judgment, personality, morality, & planning
140
define split-brain surgery.
surgery that severs the corpus callosum, initially used to treat epilepsy
141
how are split-brain patients' brains affected?
in their left field: can point to what they saw but not say what it is
in their right field: can say what they saw
142
define neural plasticity.
the brain's ability to change structure & function; "rewiring"
143
define adult neurogenesis.
the formation of new neurons that are integrated into the adult brain (dendrite branching & the formation of dendritic spines), eg blind people can use their occipital lobe for other senses instead
144
define culture.
a program of shared rules, values, symbols, communication systems, & conventions that govern the members of a community
145
define cultural neuroscience.
studies how links between neural & cultural forces can create different patterns of behavior, perception, & cognition
146
how can tech literacy affect brain activity?
better at making quick decisions, worse at sustained attention
147
true or false: people's brains can reflect cultural differences.
true; based on what skills or methods of approach are valued in a culture
148
what are some male-female differences revealed by brain scans?
- females have thicker cortex, though brain volume is thicker in males
- lateral & medial parts of frontal lobe are larger in women, while amygdala, hippocampus, & motor areas are larger in men
- women have more cortical folds in frontal & parietal lobes than men
149
true or false: a difference in brain proportion always causes a difference in behavior & performance
false; additionally, some brain differences could arise from different behavior & experiences between sexes, rather than the other way around
PSYCH 1200
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