Chapter 8

Question 1

define explicit memory.

Answer 1

conscious/declarative memory; any memory you are consciously recalling

Question 2

define recognition.

Answer 2

the ability to identify the info you have previously encountered (eg on a multiple choice test)

Question 3

define recall.

Answer 3

the ability to retrieve & reproduce info encountered earlier (eg a short answer question)

Question 4

define the information-processing model.

Answer 4

states that memory involves the input, output, accessing, & retrieval of info; works like a computer, but too simple & linear for what actually happens in our brains

Question 5

define the three-box model.

Answer 5

proposes three interacting systems in memory: the sensory register, the working memory, & the long-term memory; all three are being used at the same time

Question 6

define rehearsal.

Answer 6

repeating something over & over in our short-term memory in the hope that it will end up in our long-term memory

Question 7

define encoded.

Answer 7

when something is transferred from our working to our long-term memory

Question 8

define long-term memory.

Answer 8

all the info we’ve ever learned, ready for retrieval back into the working memory

Question 9

true or false: not being able to remember something means that the memory no longer exists.

Answer 9

false; it’s usually an issue in retrieval & not having the right cues to access the memory

Question 10

what is one thing that the three-box model doesn’t explain?

Answer 10

implicit memory

Question 11

define the parallel distributed processing model.

Answer 11

aka PDP or connectionist model; represents knowledge as connections among numerous interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network & operating in parallel similar to neurons int he brain; the ability of units to excite or inhibit each other is constantly adjusted to reflect new knowledge

Question 12

which two models is memory likely a combo of?

Answer 12

connectionist & three-box

Question 13

define sensory register.

Answer 13

a memory store that hold perceptual info for a very brief amount of time, like a holding bin, only a second or two; only what we actually attend to gets passed on to he working memory

Question 14

define iconic memory.

Answer 14

the visual form of sensory memory (about1 1s)

Question 15

define working memory.

Answer 15

a form of short-term memory that actively retains info for a brief period & keeps it available for use, about 30s; every time you think about it, it resets the 30s timer

Question 16

define echoic memory.

Answer 16

the audio form of sensory memory (5-10s)

Question 17

what is the magic number for working memory, & what does it signify?

Answer 17

7 +/-2; you are able to hold 7 +/-2 things in your working memory at one time

Question 18

define chunking.

Answer 18

organizing smaller units of info into larger, more meaningful units

Question 19

why is working memory not called short-term memory?

Answer 19

it’s more active

Question 20

define long-term memory.

Answer 20

holds info for extended periods of time, even permanently; not everything that enters working memory is going to be consolidated & retained long-term, but once it’s there, it doesn’t go away

Question 21

define semantic categories.

Answer 21

a method of storing info in long-term memory that connects one term to another (eg cat is close to tiger)

Question 22

define the spreading of activation theory.

Answer 22

the theory that when you say one word, it activates that node in long-term & spreads the activation so the other words/memories around it are also excited (though not completely activated at first)

Question 23

how is info organized in semantic categories?

Answer 23

by the sound of the word & how it looks; leads to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Question 24

define semantic memories.

Answer 24

include facts about the world

Question 25

define episodic memories.

Answer 25

seem to be organized around "episodes" & are recalled from a first-person POV

Question 26

true or false: memories can only be either semantic or episodic.

Answer 26

false; they often have qualities of both

Question 27

define implicit memory.

Answer 27

aka nondeclarative; aren't consciously aware of remembering it, but it influences how we're going to act or allows us to do things w/out having to think about them

Question 28

define procedural memory.

Answer 28

learned patterns of muscle movements (muscle memory); don 't have to actively think about what you're doing, eg walking or riding a bike

Question 29

true or false: classical conditioning is a kind of implicit memory.

Answer 29

true

Question 30

define priming.

Answer 30

exposure to a stimulus, which unconsciously changes our behavior at a later point (similar to a discriminative stimulus)

Question 31

define serial position effect.

Answer 31

looks at how we remember lists, what we forget or remember

Question 32

define primacy effect.

Answer 32

the first few items on a list are remembered easily b/c they're already starting to get consolidated into long-term memory

Question 33

define the recency effect.

Answer 33

the last few words on a list are remembered easily b/c they just entered our working memory

Question 34

define proactive interference.

Answer 34

when the first info learned occupies our memory, leaving less room for following info

Question 35

define retroactive interference.

Answer 35

the last info takes up working memory & replaces what was there before, too soon for them to move into working memory

Question 36

in working memory, how do neurons change?

Answer 36

temporarily alter their ability to release neurotransmitters

Question 37

true or false: long-term memory works on temporary changes in the brain.

Answer 37

false; involves lasting structural changes in neurons & synapses, which actively change size & structure as they're used more

Question 38

define long-term potentiation.

Answer 38

a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness, thought to be a biological mechanism of long-term memory; likely underlies all forms of learning & memory; synapses become more responsive & easier to trigger as they are used more

Question 39

true or false: remembering memories makes them more unstable.

Answer 39

true; they never completely solidify, so when a long-term memory is brought back into working memory, changes can be made to it

Question 40

how is the amygdala involved in memory?

Answer 40

part of the formation, consolidation, & retrieval of memories of emotionally arousing events

Question 41

what is the most important part of the brain for memory?

Answer 41

the hippocampus; involved in the formation & retrieval of long-term explicit memories, recalling past events, the general ability to perceive the passage of time, & item binding

Question 42

define item binding.

Answer 42

taking all the perceptual info needed to form a memory & making it into one coherent memory

Question 43

which two parts of the brain are crucial for the creation of implicit memories?

Answer 43

the cerebellum & striatum

Question 44

true or false: all components of a memory are stored in the same place.

Answer 44

false; various components are probably stored at different sites

Question 45

define flashbulb memories.

Answer 45

intense, vivid, emotional memories

Question 46

true or false: flashbulb memories are remembered more accurately than regular memories.

Answer 46

false; the person only perceives it as being more accurate b/c it feels so real

Question 47

true or false: epinephrine, norepinephrine, & glucose can enhance memory during emotional arousal.

Answer 47

true; however, there is a fine line and they could also weaken memory

Question 48

define a mnemonic.

Answer 48

a formal strategy or trick for improving memory; connecting things to make more cues

Question 49

define effortful coding.

Answer 49

making the material digestible in order to remember & retrieve it better; associating w/ personal experience, selecting main points, or labeling concepts

Question 50

define maintenance rehearsal.

Answer 50

rote repetition of material, not actually thinking about what it means

Question 51

define elaborative rehearsal.

Answer 51

associating items w/ stored or factual info, analyzing the physical, sensory, & semantic features of them; a greater likelihood of info being moved to long term; "because" statements

Question 52

define deep processing.

Answer 52

during the encoding of info, the individual processes the meaning, not just physical/sensory features

Question 53

define retrieval practice.

Answer 53

retrieving something again & again over periods of time, making it easier to recall long-term; eg repeated quizzes; necessary if a memory is going to be consolidated

Question 54

define shallow processing.

Answer 54

just reading the words, not thinking about them or what they mean

Question 55

define the decay theory.

Answer 55

the idea that info in sensory & working memory eventually disappears if it's not accessed; happens rapidly at first, then plateaus (the ones left at the plateau are the ones that make it into long-term)

Question 56

define cue-dependent forgetting.

Answer 56

the inability retrieve info stored in memory b/c of insufficient cues for recall; loss of cues, not memory, making the memory harder to access

Question 57

define deja vu.

Answer 57

the overlap of present & past cues; when something very similar, w/ very similar cues, that happened in the past or in a dream is automatically associated w/ a present situation, making you feel like it's happened before

Question 58

define the encoding specificity principle.

Answer 58

retrieval is most effective when the conditions at the time of encoding & retrieval are the same

Question 59

define context-dependent memory.

Answer 59

retrieval is more effective when it takes place in the same physical setting (context) as encoding

Question 60

define state-dependent memory.

Answer 60

retrieval is more effective when your internal state matches the state you were in during encoding

Question 61

define mood-dependent memory.

Answer 61

the idea that people remember better if their mood at retrieval matches their mood during encoding; if you're feeling negative/positive, you are more likely to remember negative/positive memories

Question 62

define childhood amnesia.

Answer 62

aka infantile amnesia; the fact that most adults can't accurately recall events that from earlier than 2yo

Question 63

list some reasons for childhood amnesia.

Answer 63

- unfinished brain development; structures involved in encoding & long-term memory are immature - cognitive development; a lack of linguistic skills & a lack of self-concept - social development; a lack of knowledge of social conventions & norms

Question 64

what does amnesia result from?

Answer 64

organic conditions like brain disease or head injury

Question 65

define psychogenic amnesia.

Answer 65

when the causes of forgetting something are psychological, eg a need to escape embarrassment, guilt, or disappointment; begins after a precipitating event & involves massive memory loss, including loss of personal identity, then ends suddenly after just a few weeks; little concrete evidence to say it actually occurs

Question 66

define traumatic amnesia.

Answer 66

allegedly involves the forgetting of specific traumatic events for long periods of time; when it returns, it is supposedly perfectly accurate; associated w/ Freud; while it's possible you could forget a cue, not recall a memory, then later get a cue & remember it again, the memory would not be perfectly accurate

Question 67

true or false: memory is adaptive.

Answer 67

true; most of the time our memory is correct, but it will always change a little bit over time

Question 68

define source misattribution.

Answer 68

the inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from info you learned about it from elsewhere

Question 69

define source monitoring.

Answer 69

the ability to say where exactly we saw a piece of info, who shared it, where it was from

Question 70

define confabulation.

Answer 70

the confusion of imagined events w/ actual ones under certain circumstances; however, your feelings about the event do not guarantee that that event actually happened

Question 71

define imagination inflation.

Answer 71

you have thought, heard, or told others about an imagined event many times b/c you thought it was real

Question 72

what allows the mind to work efficiently?

Answer 72

reconstruction; instead of cramming our brains w/ infinite details, we can store the essentials of an experience & use our knowledge of the world to figure out the specifics when we need them

Question 73

what are some cases in which eyewitness testimonies are vulnerable to error?

Answer 73

- when witnesses are primed or given misleading info - when leading questions are put to the witness - when the suspect's ethnicity differs from that of the witness