1
Q
what are some additional senses we have besides vision, hearing, taste, touch, & smell?
A
balance, movement, pain, itching, heat, & cold
2
Q
define sensation.
A
the detection by sensory organs of physical energy emitted or reflected by physical objects
3
Q
define sense receptors.
A
the first point of contact for stimuli before we process anything; when they detect an appropriate stimulus, they convert the energy of the stimulus into electrical impulses that travel along nerves to the brain
4
Q
define scouts.
A
another term for sense receptors; pick up on stimuli
5
Q
define field officers.
A
sensory neurons int he nerves of the peripheral nervous system that receive info from scouts & report it to the generals through a neural impulse
6
Q
define generals.
A
brain cells responsible for analyzing & combining info brought in by different scouts, deciding what it means & what to do
7
Q
define perception.
A
the process by which the brain organizes & interprets sensory info, mental operations that organize sensory impulses into meaningful patterns
8
Q
define the doctrine of specific nerve energies.
A
the principle that different sensory modalities exist b/c signals received by the sense organs stimulate different nerve pathways leading to different areas of the brain
9
Q
define the anatomical code.
A
aka the doctrine of specific nerve energies; stimuli from different areas will go to different parts of the brain
10
Q
true or false: we hear & see w/ our sensory receptors.
A
false; it’s our brain that makes sense of the world & causes awareness, eyes/ears/etc just pick up the info
11
Q
define synesthesia.
A
a condition in which a sensation in one modality consistently evokes a sensation in another (eg seeing sounds as colours)
12
Q
what are two possible causes of synesthesia?
A
increased neural connections between sensory areas, or a lack of inhibition between sensory areas
13
Q
define absolute threshold.
A
the minimum amount of energy or quantity of a stimulus required to be reliably detected at least 50% of the time it is presented
14
Q
what does anatomical coding not explain?
A
why senses are separate for most people, or variations of experience w/in a particular sense for different people
15
Q
define functional code.
A
uses info about which cells are firing, how many neurons are firing, the rate at which they are firing, & the firing pattern to determine how info is perceived
16
Q
define difference threshold.
A
the smallest difference between two stimuli that a subject can detect, expressed as a Weber fraction; an exponential relation, not linear
17
Q
what is another term for difference threshold?
A
“just noticeable” difference
18
Q
define signal detection theory.
A
a psychophysical theory that divides the detection of a sensory signal into a sensory process & a decision process
19
Q
define a hit.
A
stimuli is there & you perceive it
20
Q
define a miss.
A
stimuli is there, but you don’t perceive it
21
Q
define a false alarm.
A
there is no stimuli, but you think you perceive it
22
Q
define a correct rejection.
A
there is no stimuli & you don’t perceive anything
23
Q
define sensory adaptation.
A
a resulting decline in sensory responsiveness when a stimulus is unchanging or repetitious, eg not feeling our clothes on our body (does not work on very intense stimuli)
24
Q
define sensory deprivation tanks.
A
little tanks filled w/ high-salt water, soundproof & w/ no light; as free as you get from feeling any kind of sensation
25
what are some results of being in a sensory deprivation tank?
some find it therapeutic; some people start freaking out/hallucinating b/c they don't know how to handle a lack of perception
26
define selective attention.
focusing on selected aspects of the environment while blocking out others; an adaptive process necessary for focusing on more important things
27
define inattentional blindness.
the failure to consciously perceive something even though the stimulus is there, b/c you're not attending to it; eg texting & driving
28
define light.
a form of electromagnetic radiation visible to the human eye
29
define hue.
the dimension of visual experience specified by colour names; the shorter the wave, the more blue; the longer, the more red
30
why do we see rainbows?
the sun shows every colour of the spectrum combined (becomes white light); when it passes through water droplets in the air, it gets split into different colours
31
define saturation.
the dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light, how wide or narrow the range of wavelength; aka colourfulness
32
define brightness.
the amount/intensity of light an object emits or reflects; corresponds to the amplitude of the light wave
33
define the sclera.
the white outer layer of the eye
34
define the cornea.
the clear layer that covers the front of the eye, the first layer that helps trap light & funnel it toward the lens
35
define the pupil.
regulates the amount of light let into the eye
36
define the iris
a round muscle that adjusts the size of the pupil; dimmer room = bigger pupil to let in more light to help us see better
37
define lens.
the clear structure that focuses light onto the back of the eye; subtly changes its shape to be more/less curved depending on how far away the light is coming from to ensure it reflects a clear picture onto the retina
38
define the retina.
the neural tissue lining the back of the eyeball's interior, containing the receptors for vision
39
define cones.
concentrated on the fovea (central part of the retina) to produce high-colour & detailed vision; 5-7 million in the retina
40
define rods.
on the outer region of the retina; provide peripheral vision & are specialized for low light conditions; up to 120 million in the eye
41
define dark adaptation.
the process by which rods & cones gain sensitivity to low light levels; rods adjust in about 5 mins but cones do not adjust very well
42
true or false: our peripheral vision is often not something we are actually seeing.
true; it's mostly what our brain expects to see, not actual info being processed
43
define bipolar neurons.
synapse onto photoreceptors
44
define ganglion cells.
transmit signals from bipolar neurons to brain
45
define optic disc.
area on retina lacking rods & cones; have a blind spot in that area that is made up for by info from siccades & what it assumes we should see
46
define siccade.
small eye movements that are constantly happening
47
define the optic nerve.
an axon that reaches from the ganglion cells to the brain, leading to the occipital lobe
48
define feature-detector cells.
detect specific aspects of the visual world, eg lines at various orientations, & are located in the visual areas of the brain
49
true or false: feature-detector cells are an example of functional code.
true; certain visual features are directed to certain areas of the brain
50
define the trichromatic theory.
the theory that colour vision is determined by three different cone types that are sensitive to short, medium, & long wavelengths of light; aka the Young-Helmholtz Theory
51
define trichromat cone distribution.
the idea that we have an equal number of cones for red, green, & blue
52
define dichromat cone distribution.
a colour blindness/deficiency condition where people are missing one of the three kinds of cones
53
why is colour blindness more common in males?
the gene is recessive & located on the X chromosome
54
define opponent-process theory.
the theory that we perceive colour in terms of opposite ends of the spectrum (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black); if one end of the spectrum is firing, the other end is inhibited
55
define negative afterimages.
seeing the opposite colour of something after looking at it for a long time, & it disappears
56
define Gestalt psychologists.
psychologists that study how people organize the world visually into meaningful units & patterns
57
define Gestalt principles.
describe the strategies used by the visual system to group sensory building blocks into perceptual units
58
define figure & ground.
how objects/figures in our environment stand out against a background; can be dependent on the experience/thoughts of the individual looking at it
59
define priming.
putting an idea into someone's head when they're not totally aware of it, making them more likely to think a certain way later on
60
define proximity.
the idea that we treat two or more objects in close proximity w/ one another as a group
61
define similarity.
assuming that similar appearances indicate a group
62
define continuity.
the perceptual rule that lines & other objects tend to be continuous, rather than abruptly changing direction
63
define closure.
filling in blanks to perceive a complete object whenever an external stimuli partially matches the object
64
define the dorsal stream.
the where/how/action stream; guides interactions w/ objects & responsible for depth & motion perception
65
define binocular cues.
distance cues based on the different perspectives of both eyes, can be used for things as far as 50 feet away
66
define convergence.
when eye muscles contract so both eyes focus on a single object
67
define retinal disparity.
the difference in POV provided by each eye
68
define stereopsis.
sense of depth
69
define monocular cues.
distance cues that depend on only one eye & can be used for things father than 50 feet away
70
define interposition.
when an object is interposed between the viewer & the second object, partially obscuring the second object & therefore perceived as being closer
71
define linear perspective.
when two lines known to be parallel appear to be coming together/converging, they imply depth (eg horizon line)
72
define motion parallax.
when a person is moving, objects appear to move at different speeds & in different directions (closer move faster &/or backward, farther move slower &/or forward)
73
define relative size.
the smaller an object appears in the retina, the farther away it's going to appear (even if an image is only in 2D)
74
define relative clarity.
the clearer something is, the closer it appears; farther away appear duller/less details
75
define texture gradients.
if you're close to something, you can see it in lots of detail; farther away, details blur into one surface
76
define light & shadow.
give the appearance of 3D, depending on how shadows are siting we can determine how close/far something is from us
77
define the ventral stream.
the what/perception stream; includes face & pattern recognition
78
define the fusiform face area.
responsible for visual expertise (not just faces)
79
define pareidolia.
the tendency to perceive specific/meaningful images in random visual patterns
80
define prosopagnosia.
an illness where an individual can't recognize faces, usually due to damage later in life to the fusiform face area
81
when is it harder to diagnose prosopagnosia?
when someone is born w/ it
82
define perceptual constancies.
the accurate perception of objects as stable/unchanged despite changes in sensory patterns they might produce
83
define size as a perceptual constancy.
relies on other depth cues to make perceptual connections to the retinal image; "based on the other things you're seeing, it must be this big"
84
when is it tough to use size as a perceptual constancy?
when it is an object you've never seen before & you don't know how big it should be compared to other things
85
define shape as a perceptual constancy.
when you perceive an object to have a constant shape even if your POV changes, eg a door being opened/closed
86
define location as a perceptual constancy.
how we perceive stationary objects as remaining in the same place, even though our eyes are moving (eg things we pass when driving)
87
define brightness as a perceptual constancy.
how we see objects as having relatively constant brightness even though it changes w/ the level of illumination (eg snow seems bright to us no matter if it is sunny or cloudy)
88
define perceptual illusions.
occur when sensory cues are misleading, or when we misinterpret cues
89
in which situations do perceptual illusions occur?
when perception strategies do not apply, but we use them anyway (overextending them)
90
define visual agnosia.
a neurological condition where a person has difficulty recognizing & identifying visually presented objects, faces, or places, even though they have normal vision & cognitive abilities like language & memory
91
define apperceptive agnosia.
when you cannot achieve a coherent visual perception (cannot draw/copy, but will know what it is/remember it)
92
define associative agnosia.
when your perception is intact but there is no link to stored semantic knowledge (can draw/copy, but don't know what it is)
93
define hearing.
when sound waves are related in a predictable way to psychological aspects of our experience
94
define loudness.
the dimension of auditory experience related to the amplitude of a pressure wave, measured in decibels (dB)
95
define pitch.
the frequency of a pressure wave, measured in Hertz (Hz) (how fast the wave is vibrating/moving)
96
define timbre.
the complexity of the pressure wave; pure tone has only one frequency
97
what is timbre similar to in light?
saturation
98
define white noise.
a combination of all different possible sound waves mixed together (like white light)
99
how do sound waves work w/ the eardrum?
cause the eardrum to vibrate at the same frequency & amplitude as the wave, making a copy of it to transport farther into the ear
100
define the hammer, anvil, & stirrup.
the smallest bones in the human body; three tiny bones in the middle ear that open a "gate" into the inner ear
101
where are the sensory receptors for hearing located?
the inner ear
102
define the cochlea.
a fluid-filled organ where the sound receptors are
103
define the Organ of Corti.
contains auditory receptors called hair cells (are not actual hairs)
104
define the basilar membrane.
stretches across the interior of the cochlea; based on movements of the membrane & the hair cells, certain neurons will fire
105
define cochlear implants.
hearing aids that mimic the basilar membrane & hair cells, transmitting electrical signals in the same way that hair cells do to cause action potential
106
define the Place Theory
depending on where the hair cells on the basilar membrane are activated, that gives your brain an indication of the Hertz frequency it's going to be listening to
107
what is one issue of the Place Theory?
hair cells fire synchronously w/ rising pressure phase of a sound stimulus, but the refractory period limits the frequency that individual nerve fibres can signal; doesn't account for the very high frequencies we are capable of hearing
108
define the volley principle.
the summed activity of groups of cells can provide more accurate representation of frequency; we rely on groups of neurons that work in tandem, firing alternatively at the same sound, to help us hear higher pitches
109
define gustation.
taste
110
define papillae.
elevations on the tongue that contain taste buds
111
define taste buds.
buds in papillae on the tongue that contain 100-150 taste receptors in each bud
112
how many days does it take for taste receptors to completely rejuvenate?
ten days
113
what are the four basic tastes?
salty, sour, bitter, & sweet
114
define umami.
the taste of something savoury
115
define oleogustus.
the taste of fat (still debating whether this is a separate taste or not)
116
what affects each individual's experience of taste?
genes, infections, sense of smell, cultural preferences, what parents teach
117
define the olfactory system.
the system that allows us to perceive smells/scents
118
define the olfactory epithelium.
a thin layer of cells in the upper nasal area lined by sensory receptors called cilia
119
what do cilia in the nasal area do?
transmit signals to the olfactory bulb via the olfactory tract
120
true or false: the sense of smell uses the thalamus to perceive scents.
false; it has its own independent system & is the only sense that bypasses the thalamus
121
how many smells is it estimated that people can detect?
over 10,000; each has its own complex code
122
true or false: it is not important for humans to smell.
false; not as important for some animals, but still necessary (eg carbon monoxide leak)
123
what are olfactory centers in the brain linked to?
areas that process memory & emotion
124
define nociception.
the sense of pain, signaled by specialized nociceptors
125
define fast fibres.
nociceptors that register sharp, immediate pain
126
define slow fibres.
nociceptors that register chronic, dull pain
127
why is studying pain difficult to do?
everyone handles/reacts to pain differently
128
define gate control theory.
the theory that feeling pain is dependent on whether pain impulses get past a neurological "gate" in the spinal chord & therefore reach the brain; difficult to disprove (& therefore difficult to prove)
129
according to the gate control theory, what is pain tolerance dependent on?
how easy it is for someone to open/close the "gate"
130
define phantom pain.
an extreme version of pain w/out injury
131
what are two ways to treat phantom pain?
a mirror illusion; the rubber hand illusion
132
define kinesthesis.
a sense that tells us where our body parts are located, & lets us know when they move; all the info given to us by pain & pressure receptors, & necessary for controlling our body
133
define equilibrium.
a sense that tells us the orientation of our body as a whole, aka our sense of balance; relies on three semicircular structures in the ear
PSYCH 1200
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