Chapter 4

Question 1

Example: Playing for Fun vs. Playing to Win. Sports as an Agent of Socialization
- teacher example

4.1 Socialization Is a Learning Process
* Socialization is a lifelong learning ______ that involves figuring out or being taught how to be a social person in a given _______. It brings changes in an individual’s sense of self

• Types of Socialization:
  – ________ socialization is the socialization that occurs during childhood
  – _________ socialization is the socialization that occurs later in life

Answer 1

• should it not be sports for fun or sports to win. Depends on age and sports can teach life lessons
• runs through home plate like a boss
• Socialization is a lifelong learning process that involves figuring out or being taught how to be a social person in a given society. It brings changes in an individual’s sense of self
• Types of Socialization:
  – Primary socialization is the socialization that occurs during childhood
  – Secondary socialization is the socialization that occurs later in life

Question 2

4.2 Determinism: Nature versus Nurture

Central to any discussion of socialization are two contentious topics:
– Determinism versus ____ _____
– ________ determinism versus _______ determinism

• Determinism refers to the degree to which an individual’s behaviour, attitudes, and other personal characteristics are determined or caused by…..
  – ______ determinism (nature) versus
  – ______ or cultural determinism (nurture)

Answer 2

– Determinism versus free will
– Biological determinism versus social determinism

• Determinism refers to the degree to which an individual’s behaviour, attitudes, and other personal characteristics are determined or caused by something specific (e.g. genetic makeup)
  – Biological determinism (nature) versus
  – Social or cultural determinism (nurture)

Question 3

Biological Determinism (what we were born with)
* Biological determinism states that the greater part of who we are is determined by…

– E.g., if we are good at sports, music or art it is because we are somehow genetically _____ to be so

Answer 3

• Biological determinism (“nature” in the old “nature versus nurture” debate) states that the greater part of who we are is determined by our roughly 26,000 genes

– E.g., if we are good at sports, music or art it is because we are somehow genetically predisposed to be so

Question 4

Freud: Balancing the Biological and the Socio-Cultural
* Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) argued that both _____ and _____ factors shape human personality

The human mind has three parts: the id, the superego, and the ego:
1. Id represents our _______ instinctive drives
* Eros (dedicated to ______ seeking) and Thanatos (the instinct for ____ and _____)

2. Superego It is the part of the mind that polices the id (your _______)
   * Internalized _______ messages provided by socializing agents
3. Ego is the main ______ of personality, driven by the id and its demands but restrained by the superego

Answer 4

• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) argued that both biological and social factors shape human personality

The human mind has three parts: the id, the superego, and the ego:
1. Id represents our unconscious instinctive drives
* Eros (dedicated to pleasure seeking) and Thanatos (the instinct for aggression and violence)

2. Superego It is the part of the mind that polices the id (your conscience)
   * Internalized moral messages provided by socializing agents
3. Ego is the main agent of personality, driven by the id and its demands but restrained by the superego (balances the two)

Question 5

Social (or Cultural) Determinism, a.k.a. Behaviourism

• Behaviourism is a school of thought in psychology that takes a strong cultural- _______ position

– “_______” in the “nature versus nurture” debate

– Behaviourists emphasizes the power of ______ in the development of behaviour

– Much of who we are and what we do is a consequence of how previous _______ was responded to

• Shaping someone’s behaviours through rewards and punishment is called ______ ______
• Edward Thorndike calls this the law of _____
  1) Desired behaviours are ______ and thus reinforced
  2) Undesired behaviours are _____ or ____ and thus likely abandoned

Answer 5

• Behaviourism is a school of thought in psychology that takes a strong cultural-determinist position

– “nurture” in the “nature versus nurture” debate

– Behaviourists emphasizes the power of learning in the development of behaviour

– Much of who we are and what we do is a consequence of how previous behaviour was responded to

• Shaping someone’s behaviours through rewards and punishment is called behaviour modification
• Edward Thorndike calls this the law of effect
  1) Desired behaviours are rewarded and thus reinforced
  2) Undesired behaviours are ignored or punished and thus
  likely abandoned

Question 6

The Oversocialized View of Human Behaviour

• Canadian sociologist Dennis H. Wrong (1961) argued that behaviourists work with an _______ representation of human beings
• Individuals are not passive recipients of the messages that our socializing agents give us, but have the agency to _____

Answer 6

• Canadian sociologist Dennis H. Wrong (1961) argued that behaviourists work with an oversocialized representation of human beings
• Individuals are not passive recipients of the messages that our socializing agents give us, but have the agency to resist (shaped by but not completely controlled by it)

Question 7

4.3 Agents of Socialization (layered)

• Agents of socialization are groups that have a significant impact on one’s ______
  – Examples
• The impact of different socializing agents is ______

Answer 7

• Agents of socialization are groups that have a significant impact on one’s socialization (shape who we are and learning to be of value in society)
  – E.g., family, peers, neighbourhood/community, school, mass media, the legal system, one’s culture and religion (agent examples)
• The impact of different socializing agents is contested (contested means different groups push different messages) ex: drinking, parents and schools will down play it

Question 8

Significant Other, Generalized Other, and Sense of Self

• George Herbert Mead, a symbolic interactionist, argued children are socialized by others and INTERNALIZE what 2 things

Mead distinguished between two categories of agents of socialization
1. ______ Others : key individuals, primarily parents, siblings and friends, whom young children imitate and model themselves after
2. ________ others: the attitudes, viewpoints, and general expectations of the society into which the child is socialized

Answer 8

• George Herbert Mead, a symbolic interactionist, argued children are socialized by others and internalize norms and values (George on exam along with other critical thinkers mentioned on slides, Huesman not important though)

Mead distinguished between two categories of agents of socialization (lean into who we are through interactions with sig people)
1. Significant others: key individuals, primarily parents, siblings and friends, whom young children imitate and model themselves after
2. Generalized others: the attitudes, viewpoints, and general expectations of the society into which the child is socialized (Freud would call that the superego’s internalization of societal norms)

Question 9

Significant Other, Generalized Other, and Sense of Self (3 significant stages of child development)
Mead argued that the socialization of a child unfolds as a developmental sequence in three stages:

1. _________ stage: involves the imitation on the part of the child
2. ______ stage: the child engages in role-taking and assumes the perspective of significant others, examples
3. _______ stage: the child is able to consider several roles and viewpoints simultaneously
   * Significant and generalized others continue to exert influence on an individual…

Answer 9

1. Preparatory stage: involves the IMITATION on the part of the child
2. Play stage: the child engages in role-taking and assumes the perspective of significant others (e.g., parents, grandparents, siblings), based on what we see from sig people
3. Game stage: the child is able to consider several roles and viewpoints simultaneously (managing expectations and how society works)
   * Significant and generalized others continue to exert influence on an individual later in life

Question 10

Significant Other, Generalized Other, and Sense of Self
* Cooley on exam*
* Charles Cooley (1864–1929), also a symbolic interactionist, introduced the idea of the ____-______ self as an explanation of how the self develops
– The individual’s self-image is based on how a person thinks they are…

There are three components to the looking-glass self:
1. How you imagine you appear to ______
2. How you imagine those others judge your ______
3. How you feel as a _____, example
* E.g. ______ ______ (1990) research on girls’ self-esteem

Answer 10

• Charles Cooley (1864–1929), also a symbolic interactionist, introduced the idea of the looking-glass self as an explanation of how the self develops
  – The individual’s self-image is based on how a person thinks they are viewed by others (something we constantly manage)

There are three components to the looking-glass self:
1. How you imagine you appear to others
2. How you imagine those others judge your appearance
3. How you feel as a result (proud, self-confident, etc.)
* E.g. Carol Gilligan’s (1990) research on girls’ self-esteem

***how a person thinks they are viewed

Question 11

Family
* The _______ is the first and often most powerful agent of socialization
– Socialization of the child is consistently seen as a key function of the ______
– However, the approach to socialization varies from _____ to _____ and culture to culture

• Melvin Kohn (1959) investigated the relationship between _____ class and the passing on of parental _____ to children
  -Connections between culture and personality and….

Answer 11

• The family is the first and often most powerful agent of socialization (depends on family/culture)
  – Socialization of the child is consistently seen as a key function of the family
  – However, the approach to socialization varies from family to family and culture to culture (no normal family parenting style)
• Melvin Kohn (1959) investigated the relationship between social class and the passing on of parental values to children
  -Connections between culture and personality and national character

Question 12

Peer Group
* Peer group can be defined as a social group sharing key characteristics such as what 3 things

– Peer pressure refers to the _____ force exerted on individuals by their peers to _____ in behaviour, appearance, or externally demonstrated values

– Peer pressure is ______ in action
* E.g., ______ _____’s (1977) study of the informal culture of teenage, working-class boys

Answer 12

• Peer group can be defined as a social group sharing key characteristics such as age, social position, and interests

– Peer pressure refers to the social force exerted on individuals by their peers to conform in behaviour, appearance, or externally demonstrated values (conform in behaviour, socialization in action)

– Peer pressure is socialization in action
* E.g., Paul Willis’s (1977) study of the informal culture of teenage, working-class boys

Question 13

Community and Neighbourhood
* Community and neighbourhood can be important agents in child and adolescent _______

How do the following issues affect a child?
– ______ versus small town versus _____
– Rich versus ____ versus _____ neighbourhoods

• Depending on where they live, children are more or less likely to engage in ____ ____, that is lifestyle activities that place a person at increased probability of
  suffering negative consequences
  – examples

Answer 13

• Community and neighbourhood can be important agents in child and adolescent socialization (shape what feels normal, possible, risky)

How do the following issues affect a child?
– City versus small town versus suburb (poor and less opportunity vs safety, supervision and organization)
– Rich versus poor versus mixed neighbourhoods

• Depending on where they live, children are more or less likely to engage in risk behaviours, that is lifestyle activities that place a person at increased probability of
  suffering negative consequences
  – (e.g., dangerous speeds, drinking to excess)

Question 14

Community and Neighbourhood

• ______ Socialization: Cultures in which individualism and independence are promoted, less restrictiveness on dimensions of socialization
• ______ Socialization: Cultures that are characterized by obedience and conformity to standards and expectations of the community to be paramount
• which more likely to have higher rates of risk behaviour

Answer 14

• Broad Socialization: Cultures in which individualism and independence are promoted, less restrictiveness on dimensions of socialization
• Narrow Socialization: Cultures that are characterized by obedience and conformity to standards and expectations of the community to be paramount

-Broad Socialization because broad range of individual expression and developmental tendencies such as sensation seeking

Question 15

Mass Media
* There has been much debate as to whether mass media has an effect on our_______

– Much has been debated regarding the violence children see on _____ in television, and through the use of ___ _____

• Some studies suggest that exposure to violence ________, especially young men
• Others claim that violence in media provides a _____ _____ for pent-up hostile emotions

Answer 15

• There has been much debate as to whether mass media has an effect on our behaviour

– Much has been debated regarding the violence children see on television, in movies, and through the use of video games

• Some studies suggest that exposure to violence desensitizes, especially young men
• Others claim that violence in media provides a safe outlet for pent-up hostile emotions

Question 16

Mass Media

• Rowell Huesmann’s ________ studies on the relationship between violent TV watching and violent behaviour concludes that there is a connection
• Huesmann proposed two theories to explain this increase in violent behaviour:
  1. ________ ______ theory: children acquire aggressive scripts for solving social problems by watching violence on television
  2. ________ theory: increased exposure to television violence desensitizes or numbs the natural negative reaction to violence

Answer 16

• Rowell Huesmann’s longitudinal studies on the relationship between violent TV watching and violent behaviour concludes that there is a connection (don’t need to know)
• Huesmann proposed two theories to explain this increase in violent behaviour: (did prove true)
  1. Observational learning theory: children acquire aggressive scripts for solving social problems by watching violence on television
  2. Desensitization theory: increased exposure to television violence desensitizes or numbs the natural negative reaction to violence (makes it seem less serious)

Question 17

Mass Media
* Jib Fowles argues that discussions about television violence are really about ____ conflict

– Fowles draws on the work of Pierre Bourdieu, especially his concepts of ____ and _____
– ____ is a wide-ranging set of socially acquired characteristics (e.g., manners, good taste)
– ______ is the means by which classes (i.e., the upper or dominant class) preserve status differences among classes

– He argues that condemnation of television violence is aim at reproducing the _____ of the dominant class by condemning the ____ of the dominated class

Answer 17

• Jib Fowles argues that discussions about television violence are really about CULTURAL CONFLICT (don’t know name), not really violence but cultural itself, especially social class.
  Moral panic is demonizing a certain group based on a certain characteristics

– Fowles draws on the work of Pierre Bourdieu, especially his concepts of habitus and reproduction
– Habitus is a wide-ranging set of socially acquired characteristics (e.g., manners, good taste)
– Reproduction is the means by which classes (i.e., the upper or dominant class) preserve status differences among classes

– He argues that condemnation of television violence is aim at reproducing the habitus of the dominant class by condemning the habitus of the dominated class

Question 18

Education
* Education is another powerful ______ agent
– Schools are often the _____ source of information that children receive about a
social group other than their own

• Students are ______ through teachers , curriculums, textbooks, and
  the social environment of the classroom

Teachers play a critical role
– A teacher’s _____ _____—their gender, age, ethnicity, and so on—can have a
powerful effect on the educational socialization of the student

Answer 18

• Education is another powerful socializing agent
  – Schools are often the first source of information that children receive about a
  social group other than their own (doesn’t teach u what to think but teaches u how to be what roles we take)
• Students are socialized through teachers , curriculums, textbooks, and the social environment of the classroom
• Teachers play a critical role (teach authority and expertise)
  – A teacher’s social location—their gender, age, ethnicity, and so on—can have a
  powerful effect on the educational socialization of the student

Question 19

Education
* There are observable _______ differences in educational performance that are the result of differential socialization

• It is a common belief that boys have a _____ ____ for the so-called STEM subjects—science, technology, engineering, and math—while girls have a ____ ____ in language and literature.
• Both tend to be _____ to take on subject matters assigned to the opposite gender
• Much has been done to increase girls’ representation and performance in male-dominated disciplines, but boys are still not encouraged to enter….
• women gone up in stem 20% and men down 20% in last ____ years

Answer 19

Education
* There are observable gender differences in educational performance that are the result of differential socialization

• It is a common belief that boys have a greater aptitude for the so-called STEM subjects—science, technology, engineering, and math—while girls have a higher ability in language and literature.
• Both tend to be discouraged to take on subject matters assigned to the opposite gender
• Much has been done to increase girls’ representation and performance in male-dominated disciplines, but boys are still not encouraged to enter female-dominated fields
• women gone up in stem 20% and men down 20% in last 40 years

Question 20

4.4 COVID-19 and Schooling
* _____’ influence and ____ influence in socialization and social roles was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, on a global scale

• Varying norms continue around what covid social norms/rules
• Not enough sociological ______ has been done yet regarding these disruptions

Answer 20

• Teachers’ influence and parental influence in socialization and social roles was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic, on a global scale
• Varying norms continue around masking in public, hand sanitizing, social distancing
• Not enough sociological research has been done yet regarding these disruptions

Question 21

4.5 Secondary Socialization and Resocialization

• Secondary socialization usually occurs during adolesence and early adulthood and takes place _____ the _______ and involve a group smaller than society, example
• Resocialization is the process of _____ old behaviours, attitudes and values and ______ new ones upon moving into a significantly different social environment
  – Resocialization can be either _____ or ____
  – Both types of resocialization can occur ______

Answer 21

• Secondary socialization usually occurs during adolescence and early adulthood and takes place outside the family and involve a group smaller than society (e.g., new school or neighbourhood)
• Resocialization is the process of unlearning old behaviours, attitudes and values and learning new ones upon moving into a significantly different social environment
  – Resocialization can be either voluntary or involuntary
  – Both types of resocialization can occur together

Question 22

Voluntary Resocialization
* what are voluntary resocialization examples

– This type of resocialization is often marked by a rite of ____, a ritual or ceremony signalling a change of _____
* example

Answer 22

• Voluntary resocialization occurs when someone starts school, changes schools, starts a new job, retires, undergoes a religious conversion, etc.

– This type of resocialization is often marked by a rite of passage, a ritual or ceremony signalling a change of status
* E.g., confirmation, bar mitzvah, bat mitzvah, vison quest

Question 23

Involuntary Resocialization
* Involuntary resocialization occurs when someone is ______ to change

– ____ institutions resocialize by regulating all aspects of an individual’s life, examples

• Part of the unlearning process in total institutions is the ______ ceremony: A rite of passage that strips a person of their _______ , example

Answer 23

• Involuntary resocialization occurs when someone is forced to change

– Total institutions resocialize by regulating all aspects of an individual’s life (e.g., residential schools, prisons, military)

• Part of the unlearning process in total institutions is the degradation ceremony: A rite of passage that strips a person of their individuality (e.g. hazing)

Question 24

4.6 Why Sociologists Obsess Over Status

• The sociological concept of status is important to understanding how people interact in…..
• To sociologists, everyone has a ____ and everyone holds several ___ at the same time
• Each status has a ___
• Some can be ____ or _____

Answer 24

• The sociological concept of status is important to understanding how people interact in pairs or small groups
• To sociologists, everyone has a status and everyone holds several statues at the same time
• Each status has a role
• Some can be changed or replaced

Question 25

4.7 Why Sociologists Obsess over Status * Status: a recognized social _____ that an individual occupies – It contributes to a person’s social _____ – It imposes _____ and ____ that defines that person’s relationships to others. * Status set: is a collection of statuses people have over a ____ * examples * Statuses and our status set change as....

Answer 25

* Status: a recognized social position that an individual occupies – It contributes to a person’s social identity – It imposes responsibilities and expectations that defines that person’s relationships to others. * Status set: is a collection of statuses people have over a lifetime * (e.g., daughter, mother, wife) * Statuses and our status set change as we age

Question 26

Ascribed and Achieved Status * Achieved status: is a status you _____ into at some stage of your life, you weren’t ____ into it. – examples * Ascribed status: a status one is _____ into or enters ____ – example *Circumstances can sometimes trump choice in an ascribed status * Some statuses are both ____ and ____ –example

Answer 26

* Achieved status: is a status you entered into at some stage of your life, you weren’t born into it. – E.g., college/university student, an employee, a role in a hobby group * Ascribed status: a status one is born into or enters involuntarily – E.g., daughter, son, teenager, cancer survivor, elderly person *Circumstances can sometimes trump choice in an ascribed status * Some statuses are both ascribed and achieved – E.g., citizenship

Question 27

Master Status (hughes not important) * Everett C. Hughes (1897-1983): concept of _______ status (1945): – Dominates all of an individual’s ______ in most social contexts – Plays the _______ role in the formation of the individual’s social identity - examples, even when someone doesn’t want them to be

Answer 27

* Everett C. Hughes (1897-1983): concept of master status (1945): – Dominates all of an individual’s statuses in most social contexts – Plays the greatest role in the formation of the individual’s social identity – E.g., “race,” ethnicity, gender, occupation even when someone doesn’t want them to be

Question 28

Status Hierarchy (not all statuses valued equally) * Statuses can be ranked from high to low based on ____ and ___ * For social categories such as gender, “race,” ethnicity,age, class, sexual orientation, and physical ability, one status tends to.... – E.g., examples of dominace

Answer 28

* Statuses can be ranked from high to low based on prestige and power * For social categories such as gender, “race,” ethnicity,age, class, sexual orientation, and physical ability, one status tends to be valued above others (even though one not better) – E.g., male over female, white over black, heterosexual over LGBTQ2

Question 29

Status Inconsistency * Status consistency: is the condition a person experiences when all of their statuses fall in the same ______ in the social _____ – E.g. example, most status possible * Status inconsistency: occurs when a person holds social statuses that are ranked ____ and do not ____ – E.g., in canadian politics

Answer 29

* Status consistency: is the condition a person experiences when all of their statuses fall in the same range in the social hierarchy – E.g., male, white, of British heritage, rich, heterosexual, and able-bodied * Status inconsistency: occurs when a person holds social statuses that are ranked differently and do not align – E.g., Indigenous cabinet minister Jody Wilson-Raybould

Question 30

Status Inconsistency * When a person’s statuses do not ___ ____—when an individual holds one highly valued status and other less-valued ones, or vice versa—the situation that results can cause social ______ * Similar tension can occur when the value of statuses ______ over time * Status inconsistency is the result of _______ – Process by which groups are assigned into _____ that set them at or beyond the margins of _____ society

Answer 30

* When a person’s statuses do not add up—when an individual holds one highly valued status and other less-valued ones, or vice versa—the situation that results can cause social tension (cancel each other out) * Similar tension can occur when the value of statuses shifts over time * Status inconsistency is the result of marginalization – Process by which groups are assigned into categories that set them at or beyond the margins of dominant society (over ride them, gender pay gap)

Question 31

Social Roles * Role: is a set of behaviours and attitudes associated with a particular ______ – Roles attached to a status may differ across ______ – A status may be associated with more than one ____ * Role set, according to Robert Merton (1968), refers to ____ the roles that are attached to a ____ status – E.g., of this

Answer 31

* Role: is a set of behaviours and attitudes associated with a particular status – Roles attached to a status may differ across cultures – A status may be associated with more than one role * Role set, according to Robert Merton (1968), refers to all the roles that are attached to a particular status – E.g., professors, play the role of teacher, colleagues, employees, etc

Question 32

Role Strain and Role Conflict * Role strain develops when there is a conflict between roles within..... – E.g., of this * Role conflict occurs when a person is forced to reconcile incompatible expectations generated from..... – E.g., conflicting demands of being....

Answer 32

* Role strain develops when there is a conflict between roles within the role set of a particular status – E.g., a student catching a classmate cheating * Role conflict occurs when a person is forced to reconcile incompatible expectations generated from two or more statuses they hold – E.g., conflicting demands of being a mother and a student

Question 33

Role Exit * Role exit is the process of ______ from a role that has been _____ to one’s identity and attempting to establish a new role – It involves shifting one’s ______ status – E.g., of this * Role exit is something we all experience....

Answer 33

* Role exit is the process of disengaging from a role that has been central to one’s identity and attempting to establish a new role – It involves shifting one’s master status – E.g., divorce, death * Role exit is something we all experience throughout our lives

Question 34

Sexual selection - Origin - In 1871, Charles Darwin published The Descent of Man and Selection In Relation to Sex - How do (seemingly) costly traits evolve? Darwin’s answer: _____ selection. Selection arises from variation in ability to ____ and ____ mates * Might _________ different traits than natural selection

Answer 34

- In 1871, Charles Darwin published The Descent of Man and Selection In Relation to Sex * How do (seemingly) costly traits evolve? Darwin’s answer: sexual selection. Selection arises from variation in ability to acquire and fertilize mates * Might favour different traits than natural selection (may not be the best for fitness but favored in attractiveness)

Question 35

Sexual selection today * Modern view: sexual selection is a _______ of natural selection * Precise definition ______, ______ -- biology is complicated! * Shuker & Kvarnemo (2021 Behav Ecol): sexual selection is selection arising from _________ success in ________ for gametes or fertilization

Answer 35

* Modern view: sexual selection is a subcategory of natural selection * Precise definition challenging, debated -- biology is complicated! * Shuker & Kvarnemo (2021 Behav Ecol): sexual selection is selection arising from nonrandom success in competition for gametes or fertilization

Question 36

What defines male and female (biologically)? - * Not appearance/behavior/chromosomes/hormones. Its... * _____ produce abundant, energetically cheap, and more motile gametes (called ____ in animals) * ______ produce few, energetically expensive, and less motile gametes (called _____ in animals)

Answer 36

- Gametes!! * Males produce abundant, energetically cheap, and more motile gametes (called sperm in animals) * Females produce few, energetically expensive, and less motile gametes (called eggs in animals), sets up how sexual selection occurs due to resources

Question 37

Gametic asymmetry tends to lead to other asymmetries (with variation and exceptions) Differences in parental investment – _____ production – eggs are ______, sperm is _______ – in any species, more sperm than eggs are produced Differences in parental care – cost of ______ (pregnancy) & ______ offspring – usually _______ in females, but exceptions exist * Differences in reproductive success: Females are limited by _____ (usually), males are limited by access to _______ (usually) * Bateman’s Principle = males show greater _______ in reproductive success

Answer 37

* Differences in parental investment – gamete production – eggs are expensive, sperm is cheap – in any species, more sperm than eggs are produced * Differences in parental care – cost of bearing (pregnancy) & raising offspring – usually greater in females, but exceptions exist * Differences in reproductive success: Females are limited by resources (usually), males are limited by access to females (usually). Competition for females (high) * Bateman’s Principle = males show greater variability in reproductive success

Question 38

Male and female phenotypes - Male and female phenotypes often are those favored by sexual selection, esp. in ________ species Two types: - sexual _________ - sexual _________

Answer 38

- Male and female phenotypes often are those favored by sexual selection, esp. in dimorphic species Two types: - sexual dimorphism (difference in form, size, color, or behavior between males and females of the same species) - sexual monomorphism ( males and females of the same species are phenotypically indistinguishable in terms of body size, coloration)

Question 39

Two kinds of sexual selection Sexual selection results from either or both of two components of mating: 1) _________ selection: fitness differences resulting from differing abilities of members of the same sex to compete for mating opportunities (i.e. male-male competition) 2) _________ selection: fitness differences resulting from preferential mating between specific males and females (i.e., mate choice)

Answer 39

1) Intrasexual selection: fitness differences resulting from differing abilities of members of the same sex to compete for mating opportunities (i.e. male-male competition) 2) Intersexual selection: fitness differences resulting from preferential mating between specific males and females (i.e., mate choice)

Question 40

Non-random mating * Mating can be non-random with respect to the phenotypic traits of members of one sex (______ and _____ selection) * Mating can also be non-random with respect to the association between _______ (or ______) of the mates * Mating individuals may be more (or less) closely ____ than expected in a randomly mating population * _______ mating - individuals with similar genotypes and/or phenotypes mate with one another more, or less, frequently than would be expected under a random mating pattern * ________ - mating with close relatives * _______ - mating with individuals more distantly related (i.e. non-relatives)

Answer 40

* Mating can be non-random with respect to the phenotypic traits of members of one sex (intrasexual and intersexual selection) * Mating can also be non-random with respect to the association between phenotypes (or genotypes) of the mates * Mating individuals may be more (or less) closely related than expected in a randomly mating population * assortative mating - individuals with similar genotypes and/or phenotypes mate with one another more, or less, frequently than would be expected under a random mating pattern * inbreeding - mating with close relatives * outbreeding - mating with individuals more distantly related (i.e. non-relatives)

Question 41

Assortative mating -typically _____ ('like mates with like') -rarely _____ ('unlike mates with unlike') Consequences of inbreeding - Although inbreeding affects _______ frequencies, it does not alter ____ frequencies, by itself - Example: ____-____ (ultimate form of inbreeding)

Answer 41

- typically positive ('like mates with like') -rarely negative ('unlike mates with unlike'), animals like traits similar to them - Although inbreeding affects genotype frequencies, it does not alter allele frequencies, by itself - Example: Self-crosses (ultimate form of inbreeding). Dropping heterozygosity by 50% each generation, bringing out bad recessive traits (from heterozygous parent)

Question 42

Inbreeding depression results in reduced fitness - If you mate with a close relative (or in the most extreme case, yourself), a greater proportion of your offspring are ______ than the proportion from individuals that outcross - Non random mating changes _______ frequencies * Depending on the amount of genetic variation, this could produce homozygous ________ at many loci in your offspring * If a significant proportion of recessive mutations are _____, these will be expressed... - A greater proportion of your offspring will have lower _______ than expected with random mating - Inbreeding depression results in reduced ______

Answer 42

- If you mate with a close relative (or in the most extreme case, yourself), a greater proportion of your offspring are homozygous than the proportion from individuals that outcross Non random mating changes genotype frequencies * Depending on the amount of genetic variation, this could produce homozygous recessives at many loci in your offspring * If a significant proportion of recessive mutations are deleterious, these will be expressed... A greater proportion of your offspring will have lower fitness than expected with random mating Inbreeding depression results in reduced fitness

Question 43

If inbreeding depression reduces fitness, why breed with close relatives, or even with yourself? - _______ self-compatible plants (produce male and female gametes, can fertilize themselves) Next up: from microevolution to macroevolution _______ - within populations, from one generation to the next _______ - speciation and extinction over many generations

Answer 43

- Hermaphroditic self-compatible plants (produce male and female gametes, can fertilize themselves). If your only chance to breed is yourself, you take it Next up: from microevolution to macroevolution Microevolution - within populations, from one generation to the next Macroevolution - speciation and extinction over many generations