Introduction: Is Social Inequality Inevitable?
* Study of social inequality has long been a part of the sociological ______
- Social inequality is the long-term existence of significant differences in access to _____ and ____ among social groups
- Social inequality is a function of many factors, including eth…, “ra…,” gen…, cla… and strat…
- Study of social inequality has long been a part of the sociological tradition
- Social inequality is the long-term existence of significant differences in access to goods and services among social groups
- Social inequality is a function of many factors, including ethnicity, “race,” gender, class and stratification
Marx and Weber: Historical Approaches to the Study of Social Class
- The main term used to talk about social inequality is ____, popularized by ____ Marx and Friedrich Engels (1888)
- ______ is relational
– it reflects the relationship of people to what he called the means of _______—the resources needed to produce goods
– The means of production are _______:
* The funds and properties necessary for large-scale ______ and _____
- The main term used to talk about social inequality is class, popularized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1888)
- Class is relational
– it reflects the relationship of people to what he called the means of production—the resources needed to produce goods
– The means of production are capital:
* The funds and properties necessary for large-scale manufacturing and trading
Marx and Weber: Historical Approaches to the Study of Social Class
- Marx identified two possible relationships to the means of production: the owner (_______) and the workers (________)
– __________: collective of capitalists who own the means of production
– ________: are the class of workers who succeeded the peasant class of the pre-industrial era - Marx further identified sub-classes
– Petty (petite) ________: small-time owners with little capital
– ___________: small-time criminals, beggars, unemployed
- Marx identified two possible relationships to the means of production: the owner (aristocrats) and the workers (peasants)
– Bourgeoisie: collective of capitalists who own the means of production
– Proletariat: are the class of workers who succeeded the peasant class of the pre-industrial era - Marx further identified sub-classes
– Petty (petite) bourgeoisie: small-time owners with little capital
– Lumpenproletariat: small-time criminals, beggars, unemployed
Marx’s Historical Context
* Marx wrote at the height of the IR
* Prevalence of _____-_____ market practices
* Struggle between _______ interests and _____’ rights
Class as a Social Identity
*According to Marx, class has a _____ (or ______) identity as a real social group
*Each class has a shared sense of common purpose, rooted in class ________:
- An _______ of what is in the best interests of one’s class
* The _______ class always possesses class consciousness
* The workers had _______ consciousness, a belief that something is in one’s best interests when it is not
Marx’s Historical Context
* Marx wrote at the height of the Industrial Revolution
* Prevalence of laissez-faire market practices
* Struggle between capitalist interests and workers’ rights
Class as a Social Identity
*According to Marx, class has a corporate (or organic) identity as a real social group
*Each class has a shared sense of common purpose, rooted in class consciousness:
– An awareness of what is in the best interests of one’s class
* The owner class always possesses class consciousness
* The workers had false consciousness, a belief that something is in one’s best interests when it is not
“Economic System”
* The organized way a society prod…., distr…., and cons… goods and services — including who owns resources, who works, and how wealth is shared
* The “______ of the _____” for how money, work, and resources operate in a society
Trump Tax Reform Bill - read slide 9
The 2017 U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act gave much larger average tax cuts to the top 1% than to middle-income households. Surveys also showed that higher-income individuals were more likely to report that the tax law benefited them.
- The organized way a society produces, distributes, and consumes goods and services — including who owns resources, who works, and how wealth is shared
- The “rules of the game” for how money, work, and resources operate in a society
Weber’s Critique of Marx
* Max Weber also studied social _______
- Weber too saw society as divided into economic classes, but social inequality is about more than ______ of the means of ______
- Weber stressed three elements that contribute to social equity:
– Wea…
– Pres….
– Pow…
- Max Weber also studied social inequality
- Weber too saw society as divided into economic classes, but social inequality is about more than ownership of the means of production
- Weber stressed three elements that contribute to social equity:
– Wealth
– Prestige
– Power
Weber’s Critique of Marx, cont’d
- ________ includes factories, other property used to make money and properties that are highly respected by members of the society
- _____ is the degree of respect an individuals, their socially valued possessions, and their master statuses are viewed by majority of people in a society
- ______ is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite the opposition of others
- Wealth includes factories, other property used to make money and properties that are highly respected by members of the society
- Prestige is the degree of respect an individuals, their socially valued possessions, and their master statuses are viewed by majority of people in a society
- Power is the ability of individuals or groups to achieve their goals despite the opposition of others
Class Awareness
* Identifying class
→ “What class….?”
- Class awareness
→ How does my class position shape: - Oppor..
- ____ chances
- _____ influence
- _____ interests
Key Question: Am I simply located in a class… or am I conscious of it?
Class Awareness
* Identifying class
→ “What class do I belong to?”
- Class awareness
→ How does my class position shape: - Opportunities
- Life chances
- Political influence
- Economic interests
Key Question: Am I simply located in a class… or am I conscious of it?
The “Death of Class”
- Research suggests that in recent decades class has had less impact on politics…
- Politics, especially elections, is increasingly characterized by things other than ___ _____
- Argue that the lessening significance of class does not reflect a decline in its importance as an identity, but rather the ____ of _____ with respect to class issues
- The working class is now too small to worry about catering to it, if you do…
- Research suggests that in recent decades class has had less impact on politics than it once did
- Politics, especially elections, is increasingly characterized by things other than class issues (most people today see themselves as middle class)
- Argue that the lessening significance of class does not reflect a decline in its importance as an identity, but rather the apathy of elites with respect to class issues
- The working class is now too small to worry about catering to it—you won’t get elected if you do
The “Death of Class”
- Post-______, post- ______, and post- ______ argue that class no longer matters
- Post-industrialists
– Class intrests have been replaced by other structural _____
– Race, gender, national identity are all more ______ - Post-modernists
– There are no longer relevant structural _______
– Instead, social ________ have replaced class - Post-materialists
– Economic development has made everyone affluent enough that they need not worry about ______ ____
– Individualistic non-_______ issues replace class issues
Post-modern, postindustrial, and postmaterialist argue that class no longer matters
- Post-industrialists
– Class interests have been replaced by other structural cleavages
– Race, gender, national identity are all more important - Post-modernists
– There are no longer relevant structural cleavages
– Instead, social movements have replaced class - Post-materialists
– Economic development has made everyone affluent enough that they need not worry about class issues
– Individualistic non-material issues replace class issues
The “Death of Class”
- Class is no longer a meaningful _____ _____
- Economy now too complicated for there to _____ class _____
- More _________ within classes than between them
- No clear class ______ (affluent workers, differing lifestyles, competing cleavages such as race and gender)
- No basis for ________—i.e., class-in-itself not necessary
- Class is no longer a meaningful social entity
- Economy now too complicated for there to beclear class divisions
- More heterogeneity within classes than between them
- No clear class interests (affluent workers, differing lifestyles, competing cleavages such as race and gender)
- No basis for solidarity—i.e., class-in-itself not necessary
Class Awareness Research - Two competing perspectives:
- ‘Class is dead’ and is no longer an important predictor of _____ and ____
- Others demonstrate that class continues to matter for a wide array of ____ and _____
- For class to matter, a minimal criterion is for people to understand their _______ in the class structure
- ‘Class is dead’ and is no longer an important predictor of politics and attitudes
- Others demonstrate that class continues to matter for a wide array of attitudes and behaviours
- For class to matter, a minimal criterion is for people to understand their position in the class structure
- slide 18: people’s income strongly affects how they identify their social class. Even as income increases, people in Spain are much more likely to identify as middle class and less likely to identify as upper class than people in other countries. Perception of class position affects policy support
slide 19: This slide shows class polarization by comparing countries with low inequality (low Gini) and high inequality (high Gini). In more unequal societies, people are more likely to identify as lower or upper class and less likely to identify as middle class, meaning the middle class becomes weaker. Class shapes how people interpret inequality
Slide 21: This slide suggests that Donald Trump’s politics are connected to class divisions, showing criticism that wealthy elites may benefit while ordinary people struggle. The cartoon implies that Trump represents or protects elite wealth while lower-class individuals are left behind.
Slide 22:
This slide shows the demographic makeup of Trump’s supporters, highlighting that his base is largely white voters without college degrees. It also shows that racial minorities make up a much smaller share of his supporters, indicating strong differences in support across race and education levels.
Why Do People Go Against Their Economic Self- Interest?
* _______ > income (race, religion, nation, culture)
* Perceived ________
* Mis or limited _______
* Moral values outweigh _____ gain
* Distrust of government ______
* Status _____ or cultural ____
* Different definitions of “self-_____”
- Identity > income (race, religion, nation, culture)
- Perceived mobility (“I’ll be rich someday”)
- Misinformation or limited information
- Moral values outweigh material gain
- Distrust of government redistribution
- Status anxiety or cultural threat
- Different definitions of “self-interest”
Using Class to Study Social Inequality Today
- It is difficult to apply a traditional ______ class interpretations to contemporary societies in countries such as Canada
Most people do not fit in the capitalist–worker binary
– We have workers with very high ________ , examples
– We also have business owners with low _____, examples
– We also have the middle class, with a powerful sense of….
- It is difficult to apply a traditional Marxist class interpretations to contemporary societies in countries such as Canada
Most people do not fit in the capitalist–worker binary
– We have workers with very high incomes (e.g., bank presidents, corporate CEOs, professional hockey players, etc..,)
– We also have business owners with low incomes (e.g., farmers, owners of small businesses)
– We also have the middle class, with a powerful sense of itself as a class
Using Class to Study Social Inequality Today - Curtis, Grabb, and Guppy (1999) amended Marx’s class paradigm within the Canadian context
– _____ ______ class: composed of those who own or control large-scale production
– _____ class: representing a mixed … middle category of small business people, educated professional-technical or administrative personnel, credentialed salaried employees and wage earners
– _____ class (proletariat): people who lack resources or capacities apart from their own labour power
– Dominant capitalist class: composed of those who own or control large-scale production
– Middle class: representing a mixed … middle category of small business people, educated professional-technical or administrative personnel, credentialed salaried employees and wage earners
– Working class (proletariat): people who lack resources or capacities apart from their own labour power
Social Stratification: Another View of Social Inequality
- Social stratification describes society as though it is divided into a series of _____
– Stratum is a group to which people belong on the basis of their inc…, edu…., or income for the purpose of _______ analysis - Strata are used as units of analysis in _______ sampling, a research method in which equal samples are drawn from each ______ of the population
Using ‘Strata’ in Research
- _____ becomes one of those “strata”
- in slide 3
- Social stratification describes society as though it is divided into a series of layers
– Stratum is a group to which people belong on the basis of their income, education, or income for the purpose of statistical analysis - Strata are used as units of analysis in stratified sampling, a research method in which equal samples are drawn from each stratum of the population
- Gender becomes one of those “strata”
- Separating men and women helps reveal income inequality and the gender pay gap. Also shows age gap and how older workers get paid less and laid off as get older
Using Quintiles to Identify the Middle Class
* Quintile is a segment, or stratum, representing each of ____ ____ groups into which the population is divided
– Each making up _____ per cent of the population
– Income inequality, for example, can be measured by comparing the income of
______
Assessing the Distribution of Household Wealth in Canada
* Quintiles are useful for comparative purposes, both across time periods and across regions. Quebec best and prairie worst
- look at slide 5 and 6
- Quintile is a segment, or stratum, representing each of five equal
groups into which the population is divided
– Each making up 20 per cent of the population
– Income inequality, for example, can be measured by comparing the income of
quintiles
Assessing the Distribution of Household Wealth in Canada
* Quintiles are useful for comparative purposes, both across time periods and across regions
So what?
* Wealth is highly _____
– The top _____% holds nearly half of all wealth in Canada
- Opportunities are not ______ distributed
– Wealth provides advantages such as edu…, hous…., and inve…
opportunities - Wealth can shape the next _____
– Families with wealth can ___ _____ to their children, influencing life chances - Regional differences suggest inequality _____ across Canada
– Some regions show greater _____ of wealth at the top
- Wealth is highly concentrated
– The top 20% holds nearly half of all wealth in Canada - Opportunities are not evenly distributed
– Wealth provides advantages such as education, housing, and investment
opportunities - Wealth can shape the next generation
– Families with wealth can pass resources to their children, influencing life
chances - Regional differences suggest inequality varies across Canada
– Some regions show greater concentration of wealth at the top
Ideology: Explaining Social Inequality
* Arguments and ideas pertaining to social inequality are shaped by _____:
– _____ is a set of beliefs about society and the people in it, usually forming the basis of a particular economic or political theory
Dominant Ideology
* Is the set of beliefs put forward by, and generally supportive of, society’s dominant ____ and/or ____.
E.g. trickle-down theory
* Which states if the wealthy are given the freedom to generate ____ ____, others in society will benefit
- Arguments and ideas pertaining to social inequality are shaped by ideology:
– Ideology is a set of beliefs about society and the people in it, usually forming the basis of a particular economic or political theory
Dominant Ideology
* Is the set of beliefs put forward by, and generally supportive of, society’s dominant culture and/or classes.
– E.g. trickle-down theory
* Which states if the wealthy are given the freedom to generate more wealth, others in society will benefit
Neoliberal Ideology
* Neoliberalism, or neoliberal ideology, is a dominant ideology that views the individual as a more or less ________ player on the sociological scene
– It reflects a belief in a great deal of social _____
* the ability of individuals to move (generally ______) from one class, or stratum, to another
– It downplays concerns over social _____
* Success or failure to fulfill the American dream rests solely with the individual’s ____ and ____ work
– May result, in the case of failure, in blaming the _____:
* Assigning _____ for events to the individual rather than broader social ____ that are beyond the individual’s control (look slide 11)
- Neoliberalism, or neoliberal ideology, is a dominant ideology that views the individual as a more or less independent player on the sociological scene
– It reflects a belief in a great deal of social mobility
* the ability of individuals to move (generally upward) from one class, or stratum, to another
– It downplays concerns over social inequality
* Success or failure to fulfill the American dream rests solely with the individual’s motivation and hard work
– May result, in the case of failure, in blaming the victim:
* Assigning responsibility for events to the individual rather than broader social causes that are beyond the individual’s control
Counter-Ideology
* Counter-ideology offers a critique of a _____ ideology, challenges its justice and its universal applicability to society
– Counter ideologies seek to create significant ______ change
Hegemony
* Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) was a critic of the _____ ideology
* To explain the prevalence of the dominant ideology, he used the term _______:
A set of non-coercive methods of maintaining power used by the dominant class (e.g., through the media or educational system)
- Counter-ideology offers a critique of a dominant ideology, challenges its justice and its universal applicability to society
– Counter ideologies seek to create significant social change - Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937) was a critic of the dominant ideology
- To explain the prevalence of the dominant ideology, he used the term hegemony:
– A set of non-coercive methods of maintaining power used by the dominant class (e.g., through the media or educational system)
– E.g., the federal government placing blame for the Attawapiskat housing crisis onto the community
Minimum Wage and Living Wage
* Minimum Wage: ________ hourly rate a person can be paid for their work
– Minimum-wage jobs are often the ______ ones to replace with automation
* Living Wage: generally represents a target above the existing ______ wage
– Is considered too low for the “____ _____” to live on
– People paid minimum wage often have to use ____ banks
- Differs from _____ (slide 15
- Minimum Wage: lowest hourly rate a person can be paid for their work (floor)
– Minimum-wage jobs are often the easiest ones to replace with automation - Living Wage: generally represents a target above the existing minimum wage
– Is considered too low for the “working poor” to live on
– People paid minimum wage often have to use food banks - Differs from province
Canada’s “1 per cent”
The 2011 Occupy movement raised awareness to the fact that:
– 1 % of the world’s population controlled 99 percent of the world’s ____
The income disparities in Canada was no different
– Canadian learned that in only _____ days, Canada’s top 100 CEOs earn as much as the average Canadian in a year
– In 2010, the highest paid CEO’s salary was _____ times that of the average Canadian. In comparison to 1995 when the best-paid CEO’s salary was _____ times that of the average Canadian
– That suggests inequality in Canada is _______ (slide 17)
- The 2011 Occupy movement raised awareness to the fact that:
– 1 % of the world’s population controlled 99 percent of the world’s wealth - The income disparities in Canada was no different
– Canadian learned that in only three days, Canada’s top 100 CEOs earn as much as the average Canadian in a year
– In 2010, the highest paid CEO’s salary was 189 times that of the average Canadian. In comparison to 1995 when the best-paid CEO’s salary was 85 times that of the average Canadian
– That suggests inequality in Canada is increasing
