1
Q
altruistic
A
motivated by the desire to improve another’s welfare
2
Q
audience inhibition
A
Reluctance to help for fear of making a bad impression on observers.
3
Q
bystander effect
A
The effect whereby the presence of others inhibits helping.
4
Q
diffusion of responsibility
A
The belief that others will or should take the responsibility for providing assistance to a person in need.
5
Q
egoistic
A
Motivated by the desire to improve one’s own welfare.
6
Q
empathy
A
Understanding or vicariously experiencing another individual’s perspective and feeling sympathy and compassion for that individual.
7
Q
empathy-altruism hypothesis
A
The proposition that empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping.
8
Q
identity fusion
A
A strong sense of “oneness” and shared identity with a group and its individual members.
9
Q
kin selection
A
Preferential helping of genetic relatives, which results in the greater likelihood that genes held in common will survive.
10
Q
negative state relief model
A
The proposition that people help others in order to counteract their own feelings of sadness.
11
Q
pluralistic ignorance
A
the state in which people in a group mistakenly think that their own individual thoughts, feelings, or behaviors are different from those of the others in the group
12
Q
prosocial behaviors
A
Actions intended to benefit others.
13
Q
reciprocal altruism
A
Altruism that involves an individual helping another (despite some immediate risk or cost) and becoming more likely to receive help from the other in return.
14
Q
reluctant altruism
A
Altruistic kinds of behavior that result from pressure from peers or other sources of direct social influence.
15
Q
evolutionary perspective of helping others
A
- helping others evolved by the survival of individuals’ genes - if specific behavior enhances reproductive success, then the genetic underpinnings of that behavior are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations –> behavior of helping others could have served the function of preserving individuals’ genes by promoting the survival of those who share their genetic makeup
16
Q
What function might kin selection serve? In what study do we see this?
A
- genetic survival - preferential helping of genetic relatives should be strongest when the biological stakes are high
- Gerald Carter 2017 - conducted experiments w/bats & found bats shared food w/both kin and non-kin under safe conditions, when conditions seemed more dangerous, bats shared a much greater proportion of food w/closer relatives
17
Q
Under which conditions did Carey Fitzgerald and Stephen Colarelli find that genetic relatedness became a more important factor for helping others?
A
- in high-risk scenarios
- found that in low risk scenarios, ppl were as likely to help friend as half-sibling and sibling
- in medium and high risk scenarios ppl were more likely to help sibling than half-sibling and friend (much more in high risk)
- low-risk scenarios: as likely to help romantic partners as siblings & romantic partners w/whom they had no bio children as to those with whom they did
- high-risk scenarios: more likely to help siblings and romantic partners w/ whom they had biological children, but less willing to help romantic partners w/whom they had no children or adopted children
18
Q
binti jua
A
the gorilla who picked up a boy that fell into her exhibit and gently brought him to the zookeeper entrance where paramedics could take care of him
19
Q
key cognitive component of empathy
A
perspective taking ==> using the power of imagination to try to see the world through someone else’s eyes
20
Q
key emotional component of empathy
A
empathic concern ==> involves other-oriented feelings such as sympathy, compassion, and tenderness
21
Q
What do Frans de Waal’s 2008-2019 chimp studies (chimps consoling other chimps, protecting the others even when their own lives were at risk) suggest?
A
- suggests that there is some degree of perspective taking and sympathy among nonhuman primates
22
Q
Felix Warneken & Michael Tomasello studies of infant empathy
A
- 18 mo/old were put in room w/adult experimenter
- adult would drop marker and fail to pick it up despite trying (for example) - 22/24 infants helped experimenter in at least one of their tasks
23
Q
how did Felix Warneken & Michael Tomasello test that infants were really helping (control for other potential variables)
A
- never requested help, nor did he praise/reward those who helped
- experimenter created similar situation in which he did not seem to have a problem (for example, rahter than accidentally dropping the marker on the floor & trying to reach it, he intentionally threw the marker on the floor and did not try to receive it – in this case, infants were not likely to take action such as picking up marker
24
Q
neuroscience that supports idea that capacity for empathy is part of our biology
A
- experiencing emotions triggers activation of brain structures associated w/actual experience of emotion
- oxytocin implicated in empathy and prosocial behaviors - oxytocin levels rise (in chimps at least) when they help
25
Are people more likely to help someone in an emergency if the potential rewards seem high and the potential costs seem low?
yes duh
26
Elizabeth Dunn & colleagues study about giving money out versus keeping money
- ppl thought that they would be less happy giving money out than keeping it, but actually found that those who gave money away were significantly happier than those who purchased something for themselves
27
Participants diagnosed w/high blood pressure were randomly assigned to spend money for 3 consecutive weeks on others or on themselves. When did their blood pressure decrease?
- participants who spent money on others had significantly reduced blood pressure at the end of the three weeks compared to those who spent money on themselves
28
helping others improves...
mental and physical health
29
Engaging in altruistic behavior -- even when it costs the self -- seems to activate areas of the brain associated with ...
receiving actual material rewards
30
cooperation w/others is associated with both the reward of feeling better and also avoiding ...
negative feelings triggered by unfairness
31
Does the relationship between helping and feeling good seem to be a pretty consistent universally?
yes!
32
courageous resistance
type of helping that occurs in the face of potentially enormous costs
33
Do most people conduct a cost-benefit analysis before deciding to help or not to help a stranger?
yup
34
"duty-to-rescue" / Good Samaritan laws
- laws that require people to provide or summon aid in an emergency as long as they do not endanger themselves in the process --> not common in US, but more common in Europe & Canada
35
Batson's theory of how to tell the difference between egoistic and altruistic motives
egoistic ==> helping should decline if it's easy for the indv. to escape from the situation and therefore escape from his or her own feelings of distress
altruistic ==> help will be given regardless of the ease of escape
36
empathy-altruism hypothesis study results (low-empathy, high-empathy conditions)
- those in low-empathy condition (were told about this girl Katie's problems and had to remain as objective as possible) agreed to help person in need only if they thought they would remember her problems
- those in high-empathy condition (were told about Katie's problems and had to imagine themselves in her shoes) agreed to help her regardless of whether they thought they would remember her or not
37
motivations to volunteer
- values
- community concerns
- understanding
- esteem enhancement/atonement
- personal development
- requirements and norms
- extrinsic
38
people are more likely to remain longer as active volunteers if their initial motivation was more ______oriented (self-, other-)
- self -- purely altruistic motives may not keep indv. motivated long enough to withstand personal costs associated w/some kinds of prolonged helping
39
participants were _____ more/less likely to click an e-mailed inivitation looking for people to volunteer for a peer-to-peer support group if the message emphasized self-focused motivations
2x more
40
True or False: In an emergency, a person who needs help has a much better chance of getting it if three other people are present than if only one other person is present.
false - bystander effect!
41
bystander effect initial study setup
- participants were taken into a hallway with an intercom system and were told to have a conversation about common problems college students face w/other ppl over the intercom, experimenter left the hallway and told them he would not intervene
- some believed they were only in a small group, with one or two other ppl
- others believed they were in a bigger group (they were fake voices playing over intercom)
- then one person's voice over the intercom started to sound like he was having a seizure (had mentioned in conversation abt problems that he had seizure disorder), started getting shaky/stuttery
42
bystander effect initial study results
- those who believed they were in a smaller group were much more likely to run out and tell the experimenter than those who thought they were in a bigger group
43
5 steps to helping in an emergency
1. notice that something is happening
2. interpret event as an emergency
3. take responsibility for providing help
4. decide how to help
5. provide help
44
How might living in a city affect the act of noticing in the 5 steps (helping in emergency) ?
- stimulus overload --> ppl become so used to seeing ppl lying on sidewalks or scream or sirens that they just start to tune this noise out
45
the more ____ a situation is, the less likely it is that bystanders will intervene
ambiguous
46
What might be some of the most powerful information to interpreting info (and whether it is ambiguous or not) in an emergency?
- behaviors of others around us - everyone looks to everyone else for clues about how to behave - entire group may then become paralyzed by indecision -- take cues from others' inaction that there's nothing wrong when most of the time, others are actually thinking the same thing
- smoke study in textbook
47
what is time pressure
when we are in a hurry or have a lot on our minds, we may be so preoccupied that we fail to notice others who need help, become less likely to accept responsibility for helping someone, or decide that the costs of helping are too high bc of the precious time that will be lost
48
Daniel Batson's 1972 study of the role of time pressure in helping someone SETUP
- based on the parable of the Good Samaritan
- seminary students were asked to give a speech about either the parable of the Good Samaritan or the jobs that seminary students liked best
- speech would be delivered at nearby builidng
- were told that they were either ahead of schedule, right on time, or already running late
- on their way to building, they passed a confederate slumped over coughing and groaning
49
Daniel Batson's 1972 study of the role of time pressure in helping someone RESULTS
- topic of upcoming speech had little effect on helping
- pressure of time did seem to have an effect
- 63% of those ahead of schedule offered help
- 45% of those on time offered help
- 10% of those running late offered help
50
When is the bystander effect less likely to occur? (under what conditions)
- groups in which the members know or feel connected to each other
- when ppl think they will be scorned by others for failing to help - presence of an audience, for example
- when effective helping would require multiple helpers
51
Kitty Genovese
- young woman in the 60s walking home from bartending work late at night in NYC and started getting raped and stabbed
- she screamed for help and over 38 witnesses supposedly saw the incident, but no one called police until i think 45 minutes after it started?
- she ended up dying from this
- later came out that perhaps ppl did call police earlier
- her death directly influenced creation of the 911 emergency system
52
How was Kitty Genovese's murderer found?
- 5 days later he tried to burglarize a home, neighbor saw and called another neighbor and together they prevented him from escaping before the police arrived - murderer of Kite Genovese was ultimately captured through bystander intervention
53
What is the best way to get help in a crowd?
Counteract the ambiguity of the situation by making it very clear that you do need help and reduce diffusion of responsibility by singling out particular individuals for help, such as with eye contact, pointing, or, ideally, a direct request
54
Where in a mall, per se, were people more likely to answer survey questions?
people approached in a pleasant smelling location (near bakery or coffee-roasting cafe) were much more likely to help than people approached in a neutral-smelling location - better mood
55
True or False: People are more likely to help someone when they're in a good mood.
true
56
What are two reasons that feeling food might lead to doing good?
- desire to maintain one's good mood -- helping others can help us maintain a positive mood
- positive thoughts and expectations -- if we have positive thoughts about others, we should like them more and should have positive expectations abt interacting w/others
57
When might feeling good NOT lead to doing good?
- costs of helping are high, putting our good mood at risk
- positive thoughts abt other social activities conflicts with our time/desire to help
58
When are negative moods more likely to make us help others?
- if we take responsibility for what caused our bad mood
- if we focus on other people
- if we think about our personal values that promote helping
59
When are negative moods less likely to make us help others?
- if we blame others for our bad mood
- if we become very self-focused
- if we think about our personal values that do not promote helping
60
Study conducted by Fang Guan (2019) to test differences in willingness to help based on mood
- participants were shown one of three videos (pleasant video, natural disaster video, teaching video w/no strong emotion)
- they then reported their moods
- then were asked if they had time to help a grad student with their research project
- those who saw the positive video & thus had positive mood were more likely to donate their time than neutral and negative mood
- in another study, conducted exactly the same but participants were asked to donate money at end & both positive and negative participants donated at abt the same rate - time versus money
61
True or False: People are much less likely to help someone when they're in a bad mood.
false
62
Did studies find that exposure to prosocial media-- in the form of video games, music lyrics, children's television shows, movies, and so on-- were related to higher or lower levels of prosocial behavior and empathic concern?
higher
63
Nicolas Ruth (2017) study of coffee and music
- those who heard music in the background at cafe with prosocial lyrics (such as Imagine - John Lennon or Same Love - Macklemore) were more likely to by fair trade coffee (in comparison to the regular coffee) than those who heard neutral lyrics
64
Why do people who exemplify helping (role models) inspire us to help?
1. they provide an example of behavior for us to imitate directly
2. when they are rewarded for their helpful behavior, people who model helping behavior teach us that helping is valued and rewarding - strengthens our own inclination to be helpful
3. behavior of these models makes us think abt and become more aware of the standards of conduct in our society
65
reluctant altruism study by Diane Reyniers and Richa Bhalla (2013)
- gave participants in their study money in return for completing a survey, and then invited them to donate some of this money to charity
- if participants thought a fellow participant would know whether and how much they donated, they donated significantly more money than if they did this privately
66
If participants knew that they were being watched on a surveillance camera while witnessing a burglary they were more or less likely to intervene than if they are in the room with another person (but not being watched on camera)...?
more likely - reluctant altruism
67
What do twin studies demonstrate about the role of genetics in helpfulness?
- genetically identical (monozygotic) twins are more similar to each other in their helpful behavioral tendencies and their helping-related emotions and reactions, such as empathy, than are fraternal (dizygotic) twins, who share only a portion of their genetic makeup - findings suggest heritable component
68
Ryo Oda (2014) found that ____ was associated w/altruism toward family members, ____ was associated w/altruism toward friends and acquaintances, and ____ was associated w/altruism toward strangers
conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness
69
What traits tend to be related to helping behavior?
- empathy
- agreeableness -- most reliable predictor
- honesty
- humility / exhibit advanced moral reasoning
70
True or False: empathy can be developed and taught
true
71
Where in the brain did there seem to be greater responsiveness for those who donated a kidney to a stanger versus the average person?
- right amygdala in response to others' fearful facial expressions - consistent w/idea that these indv. exhibited more empathic concern for the suffering of a stranger
72
Who was most likely to risk virtual lives while playing video games in VR and what was found in their brain activity?
- participants who showed heightened activation in neural regions associated w/perspective-taking were the ones most likely to risk their virtual lives to try to help the trapped other person
73
What traits/variables were seen in "non-Jewish heroes of the Holocausts" versus bystanders who did not help during the Holocaust?
- associated w/greater prosocial behavior, greater empathic concern & moral reasoning
74
What regions in the US is it thought that people tend to be more helpful?
- southern and northern central regions or those in rural areas
75
What was the main finding about the association between religion and helping people?
religious people are especially likely to help members of their religious ingroup rather than outgroup
76
Does empathy predict donations?
- no, empathy predicted greater time spent volunteering but not greater financial donations
77
Which three countries were found to have the highest rates of helping pedestrians and which three were found to have the lowest? according to Robert Levine's study
- Highest: Brazil, Costa Rica, Malawi
- Lowest: Singapore, US, Malaysia
78
simpatia, simpatico
spanish & portugese term that may be an important element in culture of helping others and having concern for the well-being of others
- cultures in study that valued simpatia tended to show higher rates of helping than non-simpatia cultures
79
What might account for discrepancies among different studies of rates of helping in different countries/cultures?
- different measures of helping
80
Are people more likely to report a missing wallet with or without money in it?
with! obviously u dumb ho
felt especially motivated to not violate a norm of taking someone's money
81
Are collectivist societies more likely to demonstrate prosocial behavior than individualistic societies?
- no! but they are more likely to help ingroup members than outgroup members
82
True or False: Attractive people have a better chance than unattractive people of getting help when they need it.
True
83
What role does responsibility play in the person's (who is being helped) predicament?
- people are more likely to help someone in need if they think the person shouldn't be held responsible for his/her predicament
84
exchange relationship
acquaintances / business associates
85
What is the expectation for helping when in an exchange relationship?
People in an exchange relationship give help with the expectation of receiving comparable benefits in return
86
communal relationship
close friends or romantic partners
87
What does helping look like in a communal relationship?
feel more responsible for each other’s needs and are more likely to help - less concerned with keeping track of rewards and costs
88
True or False: People are much more likely to help fellow ingroup members (ppl similar to us) than members of an outgroup.
True
Participants were much more likely to offer help to a person who needed it who was wearing their favorite team’s shirt— a fellow ingroup member— than they were to help a person wearing either a neutral or a rival shirt. Wearing a rival team’s shirt did not reduce the jogger’s chances of getting help compared to wearing a neutral shirt; it was just that wearing a shirt that signified similar team affiliation led to increased helping.
89
How did the Dongyhun Choi (2019) study demonstrate an affiliation to helping our ingroups in relation to religion and culture?
- Woman dropped bag on platfom waiting for train. German bystanders were much less likely to help the confederate if she was wearing a hijab than if she was not. The hijab seemed to mark the woman as an outgroup member to the majority of the bystanders, making people less inclined to help her.
90
Why was their no relationship found between racial similarity and helping?
- although helping can be a compassionate response to another, it can also be seen as a sign of superiority over the person who needs help, and this can greatly complicate the decision about helping someone
- public displays of racial prejudice risk social disapproval
91
True or False: Women seek help more often than men do.
True
92
Frank McAndrew and Carin Perilloux (2012) study of gender associations and helping - men in competition with other men
if there is an opportunity to look more heroic than another man in the eyes of a woman observing, men may become especially likely to volunteer to endure pain to benefit the rest of their group
93
Why is it thought that Asians and Asian Americans report seeking social support less than European Americans?
- greater concerns about shame, receiving criticism, and hurting the relationship w/the person or people whom they would ask for help
94
implicit social support
- support that comes from just thinking abt close others but that does not involve actually seeking or receiving their help in coping with stressful events -- asian students benefited more from this
95
True or False: In an emergency, bystanders who know the victim or know each other are more likely to intervene.
true dat
PSYC 215
flashcards
Decks in class (10)
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