1
Q
What is the difference between non-associative and associative learning?
A
Non-associative learning involves changes in the strength of a response to a single stimulus, whereas associative learning involves learning the relationship between two or more stimuli or between a stimulus and a response.
2
Q
What is the main adaptive function of associative learning?
A
It enables an organism to anticipate future events by recognising meaningful relationships between stimuli, increasing the likelihood of survival.
3
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response because it has been paired or associated with another stimulus that naturally elicits that response.
4
Q
What is another term for classical conditioning used by behaviourists who follow Skinner’s approach?
A
Respondent conditioning.
5
Q
Why is classical conditioning also called Pavlovian conditioning?
A
Because it was first systematically studied by Ivan Pavlov, whose research on digestion led to the discovery of the fundamental principles of classical conditioning.
6
Q
Who was Ivan Pavlov, and what was his contribution to psychology?
A
Pavlov was a Russian physiologist who studied digestive secretions and discovered the process of classical conditioning. He demonstrated how stimuli could be paired to elicit conditioned responses.
7
Q
How did Pavlov first observe the phenomenon that led to classical conditioning?
A
While studying salivation in dogs, he noticed that dogs began to salivate not only when food was placed in their mouths but also when they saw or heard cues associated with food.
8
Q
What did Pavlov’s research reveal about ‘psychic secretions’?
A
Pavlov found that salivary responses varied systematically depending on the type of stimulus and that these responses could occur in anticipation of food.
9
Q
When did Pavlov devote his full attention to classical conditioning research?
A
By 1907, Pavlov had shifted his entire research focus to the systematic study of classical conditioning.
10
Q
In what other areas did Pavlov explore applications of classical conditioning?
A
Personality, hypnosis, sleep, and psychopathology.
11
Q
What does Pavlov’s approach to his research subjects (dogs) reveal about his scientific and ethical values?
A
Pavlov was meticulous and humane, developing surgical techniques that minimized discomfort and ensured full recovery.
12
Q
In Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment, what behaviour was trained in the dog?
A
The dog was trained to salivate to the sound of a metronome.
13
Q
In Pavlov’s setup, how was salivation measured?
A
The dog was restrained in a harness with a tube inserted into its cheek so saliva could flow into a container for precise measurement.
14
Q
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US) in Pavlov’s experiment?
A
The food, because it naturally and automatically elicits salivation.
15
Q
What is the unconditioned response (UR) in Pavlov’s experiment?
A
The dog’s salivation in response to food, as it is an unlearned, innate reaction.
16
Q
What is the neutral stimulus (NS) in Pavlov’s experiment before conditioning?
A
The sound of the metronome, which initially does not elicit salivation.
17
Q
What happens during the conditioning phase in Pavlov’s experiment?
A
The metronome (NS) is repeatedly presented just before the food (US), which continues to elicit salivation (UR).
18
Q
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS) in Pavlov’s experiment after conditioning?
A
The sound of the metronome, which now elicits salivation after being paired with the food.
19
Q
What is the conditioned response (CR) in Pavlov’s experiment after conditioning?
A
The dog’s salivation in response to the metronome.
20
Q
How many conditioning trials are typically required before the NS becomes a CS?
A
Several trials are usually needed before the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.
21
Q
What is a conditioning trial?
A
Each pairing of the neutral stimulus (NS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US) during conditioning.
22
Q
How does the spacing of conditioning trials affect learning effectiveness?
A
Conditioning is more effective when trials are spaced apart (e.g. every 10 minutes) rather than massed close together (e.g. every 30 seconds).
23
Q
What is the spacing effect?
A
The finding that learning is generally more effective when practice or study trials are distributed over time rather than massed closely together.
24
Q
How does the spacing effect apply to studying?
A
Distributed study sessions over a semester lead to better long-term retention than cramming the night before an exam.
25
According to research, which two study techniques have the highest empirical support?
Self-testing (such as the 3R method) and distributed practice.
26
Why is re-reading course material considered an ineffective study strategy?
Because re-reading often creates a false sense of familiarity, whereas testing yourself helps identify what you don’t know and strengthens long-term memory retention.
27
How can the level of conditioning be measured in an experiment?
By occasionally presenting the neutral stimulus (NS) alone to see if it elicits a response (test trials) or by observing if a response occurs in the brief interval between the start of the NS and the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US).
28
What is an everyday example of classical conditioning?
A child who is bitten by a dog (US) develops fear (UR), and later, the sight of the dog (CS) elicits fear (CR).
29
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
A stimulus that naturally elicits an unlearned or innate response, such as food causing salivation or a bite causing fear/pain.
30
What is the unconditioned response (UR)?
The unlearned response that is naturally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation to food or fear/pain to a bite.
31
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to elicit a learned response.
32
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
A learned response, often similar but not identical to the unconditioned response (UR), that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus (CS).
33
How are the conditioned response (CR) and unconditioned response (UR) similar and different?
The CR resembles the UR but is usually weaker or less intense. In some cases, it can differ in form; for example, pain from a dog bite (UR) versus fear or freezing when seeing the dog later (CR).
34
What are alternate abbreviations for the unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response?
UCS for unconditioned stimulus and UCR for unconditioned response.
35
What are alternate names for classical conditioning?
Pavlovian conditioning or respondent conditioning.
36
What are behaviours called in Skinner’s terminology for classical conditioning?
Respondent behaviours, or simply respondents.
37
What is the initial status of the metronome in the classical conditioning example?
The metronome is initially a neutral stimulus because it does not elicit salivation.
38
What type of stimulus is food in classical conditioning?
The food is an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits an unconditioned response of salivation.
39
What is the status of the metronome after conditioning?
Following conditioning, the metronome is a conditioned stimulus.
40
What type of response is elicited by the metronome after conditioning?
The salivation elicited by the metronome is a conditioned response.
41
What is each pairing of the metronome and the food called?
Each pairing of the metronome and the food is called a conditioning trial.
42
What type of conditioning is most efficient when pairings are spaced far apart?
Spaced (distributed) conditioning is most efficient when these pairings are spaced far apart.
43
What follows the neutral stimulus in the basic classical conditioning procedure?
The neutral stimulus is followed by the unconditioned stimulus.
44
What does the unconditioned stimulus elicit in classical conditioning?
The unconditioned stimulus elicits the unconditioned response.
45
What does the first stimulus become after conditioning?
As a result, the first stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.
46
What does the conditioned stimulus elicit?
The conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response.
47
In the diagram WASP, what does Wasp represent before and after conditioning?
Wasp = NS (before conditioning) and later CS (after conditioning)
48
In the diagram WASP, what does painful sting represent?
Painful sting = US
49
In the diagram WASP, what does fear represent before and after conditioning?
Fear = UR (before conditioning) and later CR (after conditioning)
50
In a conditioning procedure with the stimuli nurse and painful injection, what is the UR and to which stimulus does it occur?
The UR is an innate response to the US (painful injection)
51
In the same example, what is the CR and to which stimulus does it occur?
The CR is the learned anxiety response to the CS (the nurse)
52
What was the original nature of the conditioned stimulus in a conditioning procedure?
The conditioned stimulus was originally a neutral stimulus (NS)
53
How does the conditioned response relate to the unconditioned response?
The conditioned response is often similar to, but not identical to, the unconditioned response
54
On what basis can most classical conditioning procedures be divided?
They can be divided according to whether the unconditioned stimulus (US) is pleasant (appetitive conditioning) or unpleasant (aversive conditioning).
55
What is appetitive conditioning?
Appetitive conditioning involves a US that is an appetitive event—something the organism seeks out or approaches because it is pleasant or rewarding (e.g. food, water, sexual stimuli, or addictive drugs).
56
Give an example of appetitive conditioning involving sexual arousal.
Rachman and Hodgson (1968) paired images of black knee-length boots with pictures of nude women. After about 30 pairings, five of seven male participants became sexually aroused by the sight of the boots.
57
How can conditioned sexual responses be eliminated?
By repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (e.g. the boots) without the unconditioned stimulus (e.g. the nude), a process called extinction.
58
What did later research using a jar of pennies as a CS demonstrate?
Even highly neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli for sexual arousal after as few as 15 pairings, showing how powerful associative learning can be.
59
What is aversive conditioning?
Aversive conditioning involves a US that is an unpleasant or painful event the organism avoids (e.g. electric shock, bite, or foul odor).
60
How rapidly does aversive conditioning usually occur?
Often after only one or two trials, especially when the aversive stimulus is intense, reflecting its strong survival value.
61
How is aversive conditioning related to fear and anxiety?
It explains how fears and anxieties develop; appropriate fears aid survival, but over-generalized fears can become maladaptive.
62
Who developed the conditioned suppression (conditioned emotional response, CER) paradigm, and when?
Estes and Skinner in 1941.
63
What is the purpose of the CER (conditioned suppression) paradigm?
To measure levels of fear in animals indirectly through changes in operant behaviour, such as lever pressing for food.
64
How does the CER paradigm work?
A rat is trained to press a lever for food, then a tone (NS) is paired with a brief shock (US). As conditioning proceeds, the tone (now CS) elicits fear (CR), and the rat stops pressing the lever when the tone sounds.
65
What does suppression of lever pressing indicate in the CER paradigm?
The extent to which lever pressing is suppressed during the tone reflects how strongly the tone has become associated with fear.
66
What everyday analogy helps explain conditioned suppression?
Like a saloon in an old Western: when a feared gunfighter enters, conversation stops; when he leaves, people resume talking—paralleling the rat’s lever-pressing behaviour.
67
How is the suppression ratio in the CER paradigm calculated?
Suppression Ratio = Number of responses during the CS ÷ (Number of responses during the CS + Number of responses during an equal post-CS period).
68
What does the suppression ratio indicate?
The smaller the suppression ratio, the greater the level of conditioned fear (stronger conditioning).
69
What does a suppression ratio of 0 indicate in the conditioned emotional response (CER) paradigm?
A suppression ratio of 0 indicates total suppression of responding during the CS period, meaning very strong fear conditioning.
70
What does a suppression ratio of 0.33 indicate?
Partial suppression of responding during the CS period, representing moderate fear conditioning.
71
What does a suppression ratio of 0.5 indicate?
No suppression of responding—the animal responds equally during the CS and pre-CS periods, showing no fear conditioning.
72
How do suppression ratio values relate to the strength of conditioning?
The lower the suppression ratio, the greater the behavioural suppression and the stronger the conditioned fear response.
73
Why do students often find the suppression ratio confusing?
Because stronger conditioning corresponds to a *lower* number (less responding), which is the reverse of most ratio interpretations.
74
What does the reduction in lever pressing represent in the CER paradigm?
It is not the conditioned emotional response itself but an *indirect behavioural measure* of the covert emotional state of fear.
75
What did Pavlov discover about transforming aversive stimuli into appetitive stimuli?
He found that if a dog received a shock followed by food, it eventually began to salivate in response to the shock, showing the shock had become an appetitive stimulus.
76
What indicated that the shock had lost its aversiveness in Pavlov’s experiment?
The dog’s salivation and overt signs of pleasure, such as tail wagging, in response to the shock.
77
How specific was the conditioned appetitive response to the shock in Pavlov’s study?
The response was specific to the body part where conditioning occurred; shocks to a different paw produced discomfort rather than salivation.
78
What human behaviour might this type of conditioning help explain?
The development of masochistic tendencies—when painful stimulation becomes associated with sexual arousal and is later perceived as pleasurable.
79
Why do masochistic individuals not find all pain pleasurable?
Because the conditioned association is specific to the type of pain linked to erotic experience (e.g. whipping), whereas unrelated pain (e.g. stubbing a toe) remains aversive.
80
In ___ conditioning the US is an event that the organism typically avoids. In ___ conditioning the US is an event that the organism typically seeks out.
In aversive conditioning the US is an event that the organism typically avoids. In appetitive conditioning the US is an event that the organism typically seeks out.
81
Learning to associate the neighbourhood café with happy times is an example of ___ conditioning.
Appetitive conditioning.
82
Learning to associate your refrigerator with the nauseating smell of spoiled food is an example of ___ conditioning.
Aversive conditioning.
83
In a ___ ___ response (CER) paradigm, the level of fear elicited by a CS is indicated by the degree to which the rat’s rate of lever pressing for food ___ in the presence of that stimulus.
In a conditioned emotional response (CER) paradigm, the rate of lever pressing decreases in the presence of the CS.
84
The CER paradigm is also known as a ___ ___ procedure.
Conditioned suppression procedure.
85
The suppression ratio is the number of ___ responses divided by the number of ___ responses plus ___ responses.
Number of CS responses ÷ (Number of CS responses + Number of pre-CS responses).
86
Intense fear in a CER procedure is indicated by a suppression ratio of ___, whereas no fear is indicated by a suppression ratio of ___.
Intense fear = 0; No fear = 0.5.
87
According to the reinforcement effect model of attraction, how does classical conditioning influence interpersonal attraction?
We tend to be attracted to people who are associated with stimuli that produce positive emotions. Positive associations strengthen attraction, while negative associations weaken it.
88
What types of stimuli can increase perceived attractiveness according to the reinforcement effect model?
Pleasant background music, positive news stories, attractive clothing, or any pleasant environment paired with the person.
89
How can associating oneself with pleasant stimuli increase the chance of a second date?
By creating a positive emotional association through classical conditioning, making the person seem more rewarding to be around.
90
What kinds of associations can reduce interpersonal attraction?
Being associated with unpleasant or aversive stimuli—such as bad smells, annoying music, or unpleasant behavior.
91
Give an example of intentionally using an aversive association to reduce attraction.
A woman discouraged an unwanted suitor by eating garlic before their date, creating a negative association through classical conditioning.
92
What social movement is mentioned in connection with learning to take 'no' for an answer?
The Me Too movement.
93
What is excitatory conditioning?
Conditioning in which a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes associated with the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and therefore elicits a response.
94
Provide an example of excitatory conditioning.
A tone is paired with a shock so that the tone (CS) comes to elicit fear (CR).
95
What is inhibitory conditioning?
Conditioning in which a stimulus becomes associated with the absence or removal of a US, thereby inhibiting a particular response.
96
Provide an example of inhibitory conditioning.
A vicious dog always bites except when its owner is present; the owner becomes an inhibitory CS for fear, signalling safety.
97
How can inhibitory conditioning be demonstrated in laboratory animals?
If a rat is shocked after a tone (tone = excitatory CS+), but not when a tone and light occur together (light = inhibitory CS–), the light signals the absence of shock.
98
How are excitatory and inhibitory conditioned stimuli labeled in experiments?
Excitatory CS = CS+ ; Inhibitory CS = CS–.
99
Which type of conditioning has historically received more research attention?
Excitatory conditioning, as most foundational classical conditioning principles were established using excitatory procedures.
100
What trend has emerged in conditioning research in recent years?
Increased interest in studying inhibitory conditioning and its role in emotional regulation and safety learning.
101
What type of conditioning occurs when a stimulus is followed by the presentation of a US?
Excitatory conditioning, in which the CS comes to elicit a response.
102
What type of conditioning occurs when a stimulus is followed by the absence or removal of a US?
Inhibitory conditioning, in which the CS comes to inhibit a response.
103
Q: You have learned to expect delicious meals at your grandmother’s table, and you usually salivate when sitting there. However, when your picky sister is present, your grandmother does not cook well, and you no longer salivate. In this scenario, what type of conditioned stimulus is your grandmother’s table, and what type is your sister?
A: Your grandmother’s table is an excitatory conditioned stimulus (CS+) for salivation because it predicts good food, while your sister is an inhibitory conditioned stimulus (CS–) for salivation because her presence predicts the absence of good food.
104
Most of the basic principles of classical conditioning have been established using procedures that involve which type of conditioning?
Excitatory conditioning.
105
What is an excitatory conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A stimulus that has been associated with the presentation of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and therefore elicits a conditioned response.
106
What is an inhibitory conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A stimulus that has been associated with the removal or absence of an unconditioned stimulus (US) and therefore inhibits a conditioned response.
107
What does an excitatory CS for fear do?
It elicits a fear response.
108
What does an inhibitory CS for fear do?
It suppresses a fear response.
109
For residents of Berlin and London during World War II, what type of conditioned stimulus was the air-raid siren in relation to anxiety?
The air-raid siren was a CS⁺ (excitatory conditioned stimulus) for anxiety because it predicted danger.
110
For residents of Berlin and London during World War II, what type of conditioned stimulus was the all-clear siren in relation to anxiety?
The all-clear siren was a CS⁻ (inhibitory conditioned stimulus) for anxiety because it signalled safety and the absence of bombing.
111
In a conditioning experiment, a click is always followed by food, while a click and buzzing noise together are never followed by food. What type of conditioned stimulus will the click become?
The click will become a CS⁺ (excitatory conditioned stimulus) for salivation because it predicts food.
112
In the same conditioning experiment, what type of conditioned stimulus will the buzzing noise become?
The buzzing noise will become a CS⁻ (inhibitory conditioned stimulus) for salivation because it predicts the absence of food.
113
What does the term 'temporal factors in conditioning' refer to?
Temporal factors describe how the timing and order of the neutral stimulus (NS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) presentations affect the strength of conditioning.
114
How many basic temporal arrangements exist for presenting the NS and US in classical conditioning?
There are four main arrangements: delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning.
115
In delayed conditioning, when does the NS occur in relation to the US?
The onset of the NS precedes the onset of the US, and the two stimuli overlap.
116
Provide an example of delayed conditioning.
A tone is played and continues to sound while a shock is delivered; the tone overlaps with the shock.
117
Which temporal conditioning arrangement is typically the most effective?
Delayed conditioning is usually the most effective, especially when the time between the NS onset and US onset (the inter-stimulus interval, ISI) is short.
118
What is the optimal inter-stimulus interval (ISI) for conditioning autonomic responses such as salivation?
A few seconds.
119
What is the optimal inter-stimulus interval (ISI) for conditioning skeletal responses such as an eyeblink reflex?
Approximately half a second.
120
Why does delayed conditioning work best when the NS closely precedes the US?
Because the NS acts as a reliable predictor of the US, helping the organism anticipate the upcoming event.
121
In trace conditioning, when does the NS occur relative to the US?
The NS starts and ends before the US begins, so the two stimuli do not overlap.
122
What is the 'trace interval' in trace conditioning?
The time between the offset of the NS and the onset of the US.
123
Why is the term 'trace' used in trace conditioning?
Because the organism must retain a mental 'trace' or memory of the NS to associate it with the US.
124
When is trace conditioning most effective?
When the trace interval is short—no more than a few seconds.
125
What happens to conditioning effectiveness if the trace interval becomes too long?
Conditioning becomes much weaker or fails to occur.
126
In simultaneous conditioning, when do the NS and US occur relative to each other?
The NS and US are presented at exactly the same time; their onsets coincide.
127
Why is simultaneous conditioning generally weak or ineffective?
Because the NS provides no predictive information about the US—it occurs at the same moment rather than signaling that the US is coming.
128
Provide an everyday example illustrating why simultaneous conditioning is ineffective.
A car’s check engine light that turns on at the exact moment the engine fails isn’t useful; it must occur beforehand to serve as a warning signal.
129
What is backward conditioning in classical conditioning?
A procedure in which the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented first and the neutral stimulus (NS) follows later.
130
How effective is backward conditioning for producing an excitatory CR?
It is traditionally the least effective arrangement for excitatory conditioning.
131
Can backward conditioning ever produce learning?
Yes. It can produce inhibitory conditioning when the CS predicts the removal/absence of the US (i.e., safety learning).
132
Give an example of inhibitory learning via backward conditioning.
If a tone sounds just before a shock ends, the tone predicts shock termination and becomes a safety signal (CS–) that inhibits fear.
133
Among temporal arrangements, which is usually most effective and which is least for excitatory conditioning?
Most effective: delayed conditioning. Least effective: backward conditioning (with exceptions for certain biologically prepared stimuli).
134
What is temporal conditioning?
A form of classical conditioning in which the passage of time itself functions as the conditioned stimulus (CS).
135
Give an example of temporal conditioning in animals.
A dog fed every 10 minutes comes to salivate more strongly near the end of each 10-minute interval; “time since last feeding” acts as the CS.
136
Give an example of temporal conditioning in humans.
After several nights of air raids at 2 a.m., residents begin to feel anxious as 2 a.m. approaches, even without a clock—time cues elicit the CR.
137
In temporal conditioning, what signals the upcoming US?
Internal timing cues (the elapsed time since the last US), which serve as the CS.
138
What symbol is used for a stimulus that inhibits a response in conditioning studies?
CS– (inhibitory conditioned stimulus), often called a safety signal when it predicts the absence or termination of an aversive US.
139
What is the most effective temporal arrangement for conditioning?
Delayed conditioning, in which the onset of the neutral stimulus (NS) precedes the onset of the unconditioned stimulus (US), and the two stimuli overlap.
140
What is the time between the onset of the NS and the onset of the US called in delayed conditioning?
The inter-stimulus interval (ISI).
141
In trace conditioning, what occurs before the onset of the US?
The onset and offset of the NS occur before the onset of the US.
142
In trace conditioning, what is the time between the offset of the NS and the onset of the US called?
The trace interval.
143
How long must the trace interval be for conditioning to remain effective?
The trace interval must be relatively short, usually no more than a few seconds.
144
In simultaneous conditioning, what occurs at the same time?
In simultaneous conditioning, the onset of the neutral stimulus occurs at the same time as the onset of the unconditioned stimulus.
145
In backward conditioning, which stimulus is presented first?
The unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented first, followed by the neutral stimulus (NS).
146
What can backward conditioning result in when the NS signals the removal of the US?
Backward conditioning can result in inhibitory conditioning when the NS signals the removal (or absence) of the US.
147
How do simultaneous and backward conditioning procedures compare to delayed and trace conditioning procedures?
Simultaneous and backward conditioning procedures have traditionally been considered less effective.
148
What type of conditioning occurs when the onset and offset of the NS precede the onset of the US?
This is an example of trace conditioning.
149
What type of conditioning occurs when the onset of the NS occurs before the onset of the US and they overlap?
This is an example of delayed conditioning.
150
What type of conditioning occurs when the onset of the NS occurs after the onset of the US?
This is an example of backward conditioning.
151
What type of conditioning occurs when the onset and offset of the NS occur at the same time as the onset and offset of the US?
This is an example of simultaneous conditioning.
152
Q: In which type of conditioning is the unconditioned stimulus (US) presented at regular intervals, causing the passage of time itself to become the conditioned stimulus (CS)?
A: Temporal conditioning. The US is presented at regular intervals, and over time, the passage of time becomes the CS that elicits the conditioned response.
153
What is pseudoconditioning?
Pseudoconditioning is a false appearance of conditioning in which an elicited response results from sensitization to the US, not from an association between the NS and US.
154
How does pseudoconditioning differ from true classical conditioning?
In pseudoconditioning, the response occurs due to increased reactivity (sensitization) to general stimuli, not because the NS has been paired with the US.
155
Why does pseudoconditioning occur?
Because emotionally arousing or aversive stimuli (like shock) can cause sensitization, making the organism react strongly to any sudden or similar stimulus.
156
How can researchers tell if conditioning or pseudoconditioning has occurred?
By comparing an experimental group (NS and US paired) with a control group (NS and US unpaired) to measure the difference in response strength.
157
What does the control group in a pseudoconditioning test show?
The level of response caused by sensitization alone.
158
What does the difference in response between the experimental and control groups indicate?
The true amount of conditioning that has occurred.
159
What does the prefix “pseudo” in pseudoconditioning mean?
“False” — it indicates that the apparent conditioning is not genuine learning.
160
When is pseudoconditioning most likely to occur?
When the unconditioned stimulus (US) is highly arousing or emotionally upsetting, such as an electric shock or loud noise.
161
What is acquisition in classical conditioning?
Acquisition is the process of developing and strengthening a conditioned response (CR) through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US).
162
During acquisition, how does conditioning typically progress?
Conditioning occurs rapidly during early trials and then gradually levels off as it reaches the asymptote of conditioning.
163
What is the “asymptote of conditioning”?
The maximum level of learning or conditioning that can occur in a given situation.
164
How does the intensity of the unconditioned stimulus (US) affect conditioning?
A more intense US produces stronger and faster conditioning than a less intense US.
165
How does the intensity of the neutral stimulus (NS) affect conditioning?
A more intense NS produces stronger and faster conditioning than a less intense NS.
166
What is extinction in classical conditioning?
Extinction is the weakening or elimination of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
167
In extinction, what is the “process” versus the “procedure”?
The process is the decrease in the CR’s strength, while the procedure is the repeated presentation of the CS without the US.
168
What is an extinction trial?
Each presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
169
Example of extinction in Pavlov’s experiment?
A metronome that once elicited salivation stops doing so after being presented repeatedly without food.
170
What does extinction refer to in classical conditioning?
Extinction is the weakening or elimination of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
171
Does extinction erase learning?
No. Extinction represents new inhibitory learning, not unlearning. The CS–US association remains but the CR is inhibited.
172
What is rapid reacquisition in classical conditioning?
Rapid reacquisition is the quick return of a conditioned response (CR) when the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are paired again after extinction.
173
Why does rapid reacquisition occur quickly?
Because extinction suppresses but does not erase the original learning; the underlying CS–US connection still exists.
174
What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?
Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response (CR) to a conditioned stimulus (CS) after a rest period following extinction.
175
How does spontaneous recovery change with repeated extinction sessions?
Each recovery is weaker and extinguishes more quickly than the previous one.
176
What does spontaneous recovery suggest about extinction?
It suggests that extinction involves learning to inhibit the CR rather than unlearning the CS–US association.
177
Why do some fears or phobias persist even without further exposure to the unconditioned stimulus (US)?
Because avoidance prevents extinction. Without exposure to the CS (e.g., dogs) in the absence of the US (bite), the fear cannot be extinguished.
178
What therapeutic approach is based on preventing avoidance so extinction can occur?
Exposure therapy or systematic desensitization.
179
What is disinhibition in classical conditioning?
Disinhibition is the sudden recovery of a conditioned response (CR) during extinction when a novel stimulus is introduced, temporarily disrupting the inhibition built up during extinction.
180
Give an example of disinhibition.
A dog’s salivation response to a metronome returns during extinction when a new humming noise is introduced.
181
How is disinhibition similar to and different from dishabituation?
Both involve recovery of a response after a novel stimulus. However, disinhibition occurs after extinction (associative learning), while dishabituation occurs after habituation (non-associative learning).
182
What is the key difference between extinction and forgetting?
Extinction results from repeated exposure to the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US), while forgetting results from the mere passage of time without exposure.
183
In extinction, is the CR eliminated through unlearning or inhibition?
Through inhibition. The CS–US connection remains, but the CR is suppressed.
184
What is required for extinction to occur?
Repeated exposure to the CS without the US.
185
What is required for forgetting to occur?
Only the passage of time; no repeated exposure to the CS is needed.
186
Q: In the process of extinction, why does a conditioned response (CR) grow weaker?
A: Because the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (US), leading the organism to learn that the CS no longer predicts the US.
187
Q: What does the procedure of extinction involve in classical conditioning?
A: Extinction involves repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US). This weakens or eliminates the conditioned response (CR) because the CS no longer predicts the US.
A: Extinction involves repeatedly presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US). This weakens or eliminates the conditioned response (CR) because the CS no longer predicts the US.
188
Once a CR has been extinguished, does reacquisition occur more or less rapidly than original conditioning?
More rapidly — this is called rapid reacquisition.
189
What is the sudden recovery of an extinguished response after a delay known as?
Spontaneous recovery.
190
With repeated extinction sessions, how does each recovery of the CR change?
It becomes weaker and extinguishes more quickly each time.
191
According to Pavlov, extinction involves ________ rather than ________ of the CR.
Inhibition rather than unlearning.
192
What is the sudden recovery of a response during extinction when a novel stimulus is introduced called?
Disinhibition.
193
What is stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?
The tendency for a conditioned response (CR) to occur in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS).
194
In stimulus generalization, how does similarity to the original CS affect the strength of the CR?
The more similar the new stimulus is to the original CS, the stronger the conditioned response will be.
195
Provide an example of stimulus generalization using tones.
If a dog is conditioned to salivate to a 2000 Hz tone, it will also salivate to similar tones such as 1900 Hz or 2100 Hz but less to tones like 1000 Hz or 3000 Hz.
196
Provide a real-life example of stimulus generalization in humans.
A child bitten by one dog may fear other dogs, especially those that look similar to the one that bit them.
197
What is semantic generalization?
A type of stimulus generalization in humans where the response generalizes to verbal stimuli similar in meaning to the original conditioned stimulus.
198
Give an example of semantic generalization.
If the word “car” is paired with a shock, fear may generalize to words like “automobile” or “truck,” but not to “bar” or “tar.”
199
What determines the strength of semantic generalization?
The similarity in meaning between words, rather than their sound or appearance.
200
What is stimulus discrimination in classical conditioning?
The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another — responding only to the specific CS that predicts the US.
201
Provide an example of stimulus discrimination.
A dog salivates to a 2000 Hz tone but not to a 1900 Hz tone, showing it can discriminate between them.
202
What is discrimination training?
A procedure in which one stimulus (CS+) is repeatedly paired with a US and another stimulus (CS−) is presented without the US, teaching the subject to respond only to the CS+.
203
In discrimination training, what is a CS+?
An excitatory conditioned stimulus that predicts the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus (US).
204
In discrimination training, what is a CS−?
An inhibitory conditioned stimulus that predicts the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US).
205
Why must the two trial types in discrimination training be presented in random order?
To ensure the subject learns to respond to the correct stimulus rather than to a predictable pattern (e.g., every second trial means food).
206
What effect does discrimination training have on stimulus generalization?
It reduces or counteracts generalization by teaching the subject to respond only to one specific stimulus.
207
What is stimulus generalization in classical conditioning?
The tendency for a conditioned response (CR) to occur in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus (CS).
208
In stimulus generalization, the more ___ the stimulus is to the original CS, the ___ the response.
The more similar the stimulus, the stronger the response.
209
What is semantic generalization?
The generalization of a conditioned response to verbal stimuli that are similar in meaning to the conditioned stimulus.
210
What is the opposite of stimulus generalization?
Stimulus discrimination.
211
Define stimulus discrimination.
The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another; the organism learns to respond only to the specific CS that predicts the US.
212
Feeling anxious around objects that look like a rattlesnake is an example of stimulus ____.
Stimulus generalization.
213
Feeling anxious around rattlesnakes but not other snakes is an example of stimulus ____.
Stimulus discrimination.
214
What does the term 'overgeneralization' mean in classical conditioning?
When a conditioned response is applied too broadly to inappropriate or non-relevant stimuli.
215
Example — Carrie disliked her physics instructor and came to dislike all science instructors. This illustrates what process?
Overgeneralization.
216
What is experimental neurosis?
An experimentally produced disorder in which animals exposed to unpredictable or conflicting events develop neurotic-like symptoms.
217
Who first discovered experimental neurosis?
Pavlov’s colleague Shchenger-Krestovnikova, during discrimination training with circles and ellipses.
218
How does experimental neurosis occur?
When discrimination between stimuli becomes extremely difficult, leading to conflict, frustration, and emotional breakdown.
219
What human relevance did Pavlov suggest for experimental neurosis?
That human neurosis may result from prolonged exposure to extreme uncertainty and conflicting situations.
220
What did Pavlov notice about different dogs’ responses to conditioning?
Shy dogs conditioned easily and became anxious; outgoing dogs conditioned poorly and became restless or catatonic.
221
According to Pavlov, what causes these differences in conditioning?
Inherited differences in temperament interact with classical conditioning processes.
222
How did Eysenck expand Pavlov’s ideas into his personality theory?
By linking conditioning ability with introversion and extroversion.
223
How do introverts and extroverts differ in conditioning?
Introverts condition easily and show anxiety-type symptoms; extroverts condition less easily and show physical-type symptoms.
224
According to Eysenck, why do psychopaths lack a strong conscience?
They are extreme extroverts who condition very poorly, experiencing little or no conditioned anxiety when harming others.
225
What is higher-order (second-order) conditioning?
It occurs when a stimulus that is associated with a conditioned stimulus also becomes a conditioned stimulus, even without direct pairing with the unconditioned stimulus.
226
In the example of being stung by a wasp, what becomes the CS₁ and CS₂?
The wasp is the CS₁ (paired with sting → fear), and the trash bin becomes the CS₂ (associated with wasps → mild fear).
227
Why is the response to a CS₂ weaker than the response to a CS₁?
Because the CS₂ is only indirectly associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
228
What is an example of higher-order conditioning in advertising?
Pairing a product (NS₂) with a celebrity (CS₁) who already elicits positive emotions, so the product becomes associated with those feelings.
229
Can third-order conditioning occur?
Yes, but it’s rare and produces very weak conditioned responses.
230
What does higher-order conditioning demonstrate about learning?
That emotional and learned associations can spread across related cues, even without direct experience of the original stimulus.
231
In ______ conditioning, an already established CS is used to condition a new CS.
Higher-order conditioning.
232
In higher-order conditioning, does the CS₂ elicit a weaker or stronger response than the CS₁?
A weaker response, because the CS₂ is only indirectly associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
233
In higher-order conditioning, the CS₁ is often called ______-order conditioning, while the CS₂ is called ______-order conditioning.
The CS₁ is first-order conditioning, and the CS₂ is second-order conditioning.
234
In an advertisement where a car is paired with a famous person, which is the CS₁ and which is the CS₂?
The famous person is the CS₁ (already elicits positive feelings), and the car is the CS₂ (becomes associated with those feelings).
235
Why does higher-order conditioning show weaker responses as the order increases?
Because each new conditioned stimulus (CS₂, CS₃, etc.) is only indirectly linked to the original unconditioned stimulus.
236
What is sensory preconditioning?
It occurs when two neutral stimuli are paired together, and later, when one becomes a CS, the other also elicits a conditioned response despite never being directly paired with the US.
237
In the example of wasps and a tool shed, what becomes the CS₁ and CS₂?
The wasp becomes CS₁ (paired with sting → fear), and the tool shed becomes CS₂ (associated with the wasp → mild fear).
238
How is sensory preconditioning different from higher-order conditioning?
In sensory preconditioning, the neutral stimuli are paired *before* conditioning occurs; in higher-order conditioning, the new stimulus is paired *after* one has already become a CS.
239
Why is the response to a CS₂ weaker than to a CS₁ in sensory preconditioning?
Because the CS₂ is only indirectly associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
240
What makes sensory preconditioning more effective — many or few pairings of the neutral stimuli?
Fewer pairings; too many make the stimuli overly familiar and interfere with conditioning.
241
Is sensory preconditioning more effective when the two neutral stimuli are presented simultaneously or sequentially?
Simultaneously — though this is opposite to what is usually found in standard NS–US conditioning.
242
Why is sensory preconditioning considered a form of latent learning?
Because the organism learns associations between stimuli even when no reinforcement or significant outcome is present.
243
What is US Revaluation in classical conditioning?
It’s a process where changing the intensity or value of the unconditioned stimulus (US) after conditioning alters the strength of response to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
244
Does US Revaluation occur during or after conditioning?
It occurs after conditioning has already taken place.
245
What are the two types of US Revaluation?
US Inflation and US Deflation.
246
What happens during US Inflation?
The value or intensity of the US increases after conditioning, leading to a stronger conditioned response (CR) to the CS.
247
What happens during US Deflation?
The value or intensity of the US decreases after conditioning, leading to a weaker conditioned response (CR) to the CS.
248
Give an example of US Inflation.
A metronome (CS) paired with a small amount of food (US) causes slight salivation; later, giving the dog a large amount of food alone makes the metronome elicit stronger salivation.
249
Give an example of US Deflation.
You salivate at Joe’s Restaurant because of their turkey gumbo, but after eating gumbo constantly at home and getting bored of it, you salivate less when you visit the restaurant.
250
What does US Revaluation show about learning?
It shows that conditioned responses depend on an organism’s most recent experience with the US, not just on past CS–US pairings.
251
Which theory does US Revaluation support?
Cognitive theories of conditioning, which propose that animals learn expectations about the US based on the CS.
252
How can US Revaluation influence phobias?
By increasing or decreasing the perceived intensity or value of the US (e.g., threat or danger), US Revaluation can contribute to the development or reduction of phobias.
253
What happens in classical conditioning?
A previously neutral stimulus (NS) becomes functionally relevant because it predicts another important stimulus, the unconditioned stimulus (US).
254
When does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus (CS)?
When it allows the organism to predict the arrival of an unconditioned stimulus (US).
255
What is the conditioned response (CR)?
The learned response to the conditioned stimulus that prepares the organism for the arrival of the US.
256
What is fear conditioning?
A form of aversive classical conditioning where the US is something that naturally elicits fear or threat.
257
Why is fear conditioning difficult to measure directly?
Because fear-related conditioned responses involve physiological changes (like increased heart rate) that are hard to measure without specialized equipment.
258
What is conditioned suppression?
A technique used to measure conditioned fear responses by observing how fear suppresses an ongoing, easily measurable behavior.
259
What behavior is typically used in conditioned suppression experiments?
Lever pressing for food in rats, since it can be trained easily and measured objectively.
260
How is conditioned suppression measured?
By recording the rate of lever pressing before and during the presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS).
261
What happens during conditioning in a conditioned suppression experiment?
A tone (neutral stimulus) is paired with a mild electric shock (unconditioned stimulus) over multiple trials.
262
What does the rat learn in this procedure?
The rat learns that the tone predicts the shock, making the tone a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a fear response.
263
What happens to the rat’s behavior when the tone (CS) is presented after conditioning?
The rat freezes and stops pressing the lever, showing a conditioned fear response.
264
Why does lever pressing decrease during the CS?
Because the rat’s fear response causes it to freeze, suppressing the previously learned behavior of lever pressing.
265
What does a reduction in lever pressing indicate?
That the animal has learned the association between the CS (tone) and the US (shock) and is showing a conditioned fear response.
266
Why is conditioned suppression useful in research?
It provides an objective, quantifiable way to measure fear conditioning without requiring physiological equipment.
267
What are the four temporal factors in classical conditioning?
Delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning.
268
What does 'temporal arrangement' mean in conditioning?
It refers to the timing relationship between the presentation of the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US).
269
Which temporal arrangement is generally most effective for conditioning?
Delayed conditioning.
270
What happens in delayed conditioning?
The onset of the CS precedes the onset of the US, and the two overlap for some time.
271
Why is delayed conditioning effective?
Because the CS reliably predicts the US while both are present together.
272
What are the two types of delayed conditioning?
Short-delayed and long-delayed conditioning.
273
How long is the interval in short-delayed conditioning?
Very brief, less than one minute.
274
What distinguishes long-delayed conditioning from short-delayed conditioning?
The delay between CS onset and US onset is longer, but the CS remains present until the US occurs (no gap).
275
What happens in trace conditioning?
The CS is presented and then ends before the US begins, creating a gap called the trace interval.
276
What is the trace interval?
The time gap between the end of the CS and the start of the US in trace conditioning.
277
Why is trace conditioning less effective than delayed conditioning?
Because the organism must maintain a 'memory trace' of the CS during the interval before the US occurs.
278
In trace conditioning, when is the conditioned response (CR) most likely to occur?
During the trace interval (the gap), rather than when the CS is present.
279
Give an example of trace conditioning.
A tone is played and then stops just before a shock is delivered.
280
What happens in simultaneous conditioning?
The CS and US begin at the same time.
281
Why is simultaneous conditioning generally poor for learning?
Because the CS does not predict the US; it occurs at the same time, offering no predictive value.
282
Give an example of simultaneous conditioning.
A tone sounds at the exact moment a shock is delivered.
283
What happens in backward conditioning?
The US is presented first, followed by the CS.
284
Why is backward conditioning usually least effective?
Because the CS comes after the US, making it a poor predictor of the US.
285
Give an example of backward conditioning.
A shock is given first, and then a tone is played.
286
Can all four temporal arrangements lead to conditioning?
Yes, but they vary in effectiveness—delayed is usually best, backward the weakest.
287
How do behavioral mechanisms differ across temporal arrangements?
In fear conditioning, short-delayed procedures elicit freezing, while simultaneous procedures may elicit movement or escape.
288
How do neural mechanisms differ between trace and delayed conditioning?
Trace conditioning involves medial forebrain cortical neurons; delayed conditioning does not.
289
Q: Order the four temporal arrangements of a Neutral Stimulus–Unconditioned Stimulus (NS–US) from most to least effective for producing conditioning.
A:
1️⃣ Most effective – Delayed conditioning
2️⃣ Second most effective – Trace conditioning
3️⃣ Third (second least effective) – Simultaneous conditioning
4️⃣ Least effective – Backward conditioning
290
What does the Classical Conditioning 2 topic examine regarding NS and US pairings?
It explores how conditioning does not automatically occur just because a neutral stimulus (NS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are paired; learning depends on salience and context.
291
What is a compound stimulus in classical conditioning?
A compound stimulus involves two or more stimuli presented together (e.g., a bright light and a faint metronome) during conditioning.
292
What is the phenomenon of overshadowing in classical conditioning?
Overshadowing occurs when the more salient element of a compound stimulus becomes a stronger conditioned stimulus (CS), overshadowing the less salient element.
293
In the wasp sting example, what stimulus becomes the most effective CS?
The sight (and possibly the sound) of the wasp becomes the most salient stimulus and the conditioned stimulus for fear.
294
In an overshadowing experiment using a bright light and faint metronome paired with food, which stimulus becomes the CS?
The bright light becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting salivation; the faint metronome elicits little or no conditioned response (CR).
295
Why does the faint metronome fail to elicit a conditioned response in overshadowing?
Because it is less salient than the bright light, it receives little associative strength and fails to form a strong CS–US connection.
296
What does the overshadowing effect demonstrate about stimulus salience?
It shows that stimulus salience strongly influences conditioning; the most noticeable stimulus acquires the association with the US.
297
How do managers use the principle of overshadowing in real life?
Managers may have assistants announce unpopular decisions so that the assistant (the salient stimulus) receives the blame.
298
How does the overshadowing effect apply in rock bands?
The lead singer, as the most salient band member, receives most of the audience’s positive associations, overshadowing other members.
299
What is the main takeaway from the concept of overshadowing?
Not all stimuli present during learning acquire associations; the most prominent (salient) stimuli dominate the conditioned response.
300
What is the phenomenon of blocking in classical conditioning?
Blocking occurs when the presence of an established conditioned stimulus (CS) during conditioning prevents a new neutral stimulus (NS) from becoming conditioned.
301
How does blocking differ from overshadowing?
In blocking, the compound consists of a previously conditioned CS and a new NS, whereas in overshadowing both elements are neutral but differ in salience.
302
What is learned during the first phase of a blocking experiment?
The subject learns that the initial CS (e.g., light) predicts the US (e.g., food).
303
What happens when the established CS and a new NS are paired together with the US in blocking?
The new NS fails to become a conditioned stimulus because the US is already predicted by the established CS.
304
In blocking, why does the metronome fail to elicit a conditioned response when paired with a light that already predicts food?
Because the metronome provides no new predictive information about the US; the light already signals that food will occur.
305
What does blocking demonstrate about the role of contiguity in conditioning?
It shows that mere contiguity between NS and US is insufficient; learning depends on whether the NS predicts the US.
306
How does blocking support a cognitive interpretation of conditioning?
Blocking implies that organisms form expectations; learning occurs only when the stimulus provides new information about what will happen next.
307
What real-world example illustrates the blocking effect?
If two managers announce bad news and one is already disliked, employees associate the negativity mainly with that manager, blocking conditioning to the other.
308
Which theorist would have supported the cognitive explanation of blocking?
Tolman, because he emphasized cognitive expectations and purposive learning.
309
What upcoming theory in Chapter 5 further formalizes the idea behind blocking?
The Rescorla–Wagner model, which proposes that learning occurs only when there is a prediction error or surprise in the outcome.
310
What is the main idea behind occasion setting in classical conditioning?
Occasion setting occurs when a contextual or background stimulus signals whether a CS–US association will occur.
311
What is an Occasion Setter (OS)?
An Occasion Setter is a stimulus that signals when another stimulus (CS) will be followed by a US; it modulates, rather than elicits, a conditioned response.
312
How does Dr. Pavlov serve as an Occasion Setter in the metronome example?
Pavlov’s presence predicts that the metronome will be followed by food; when he is absent, the metronome does not predict food.
313
In the Pavlov example, what happens to the metronome when Pavlov is present versus absent?
When present, the metronome acts as a CS and elicits salivation; when absent, it remains an NS and does not elicit salivation.
314
Why does Pavlov’s presence qualify as an Occasion Setter?
Because his presence determines the *occasion* under which the metronome–food association holds true.
315
What is a real-life example of occasion setting involving alcohol and punishment?
A child experiences stronger anxiety around parents when the smell of alcohol is present, as it predicts harsher punishment; alcohol acts as an Occasion Setter.
316
In the alcohol example, does the smell of alcohol itself elicit anxiety?
No, alcohol alone does not elicit anxiety, but it modulates the child’s response to the parents, increasing anxiety in their presence.
317
What does occasion setting reveal about the role of context in learning?
It shows that learning is context-sensitive; organisms learn when a CS–US relationship applies, not just that it exists.
318
How might occasion setting explain a dog’s excitement when its owner puts on shoes?
The owner’s shoes signal a walk only at a specific time of day; time context serves as an Occasion Setter.
319
How does occasion setting apply to hikers’ fear of bears?
Hikers feel greater fear around bears with cubs; the presence of cubs signals a higher probability of attack, acting as an Occasion Setter.
320
What is the key difference between an Occasion Setter and a Conditioned Stimulus?
A CS directly elicits a CR, whereas an OS controls whether or when the CS–US relationship produces the CR.
321
What is latent inhibition in classical conditioning?
Latent inhibition is the phenomenon in which a familiar stimulus is more difficult to condition as a CS than a novel, unfamiliar stimulus.
322
How does familiarity affect conditioning in latent inhibition?
The more familiar a stimulus is, the less readily it becomes associated with a US; novel stimuli are conditioned more easily.
323
Describe a classic example of latent inhibition using a metronome.
If a dog hears a metronome repeatedly before conditioning, it will take many more pairings with food before salivation occurs, compared to a novel metronome sound.
324
What does latent inhibition prevent?
It prevents the formation of conditioned responses to redundant or irrelevant stimuli, conserving attentional resources.
325
How is latent inhibition similar to habituation?
Both reduce responses to redundant stimuli—habituation reduces unlearned reflexes, while latent inhibition reduces learned associations.
326
Why is latent inhibition evolutionarily adaptive?
It allows organisms to focus on novel, potentially important cues (like a predator’s scent) rather than familiar background stimuli (like grass).
327
What would happen if a rabbit developed a fear of grass instead of a coyote’s scent?
It would be maladaptive—the rabbit would be anxious all the time, demonstrating the importance of selective learning through latent inhibition.
328
What psychological disorder is associated with reduced latent inhibition?
Schizophrenia—people with the disorder condition more easily to familiar or irrelevant stimuli.
329
What does reduced latent inhibition in schizophrenia indicate?
It reflects difficulty filtering out redundant information, leading to over-attention to irrelevant stimuli.
330
How do antipsychotic drugs affect latent inhibition?
They tend to increase latent inhibition, helping to normalize attention and stimulus filtering.
331
What does latent inhibition reveal about learning processes?
Learning is selective and context-sensitive; organisms prioritize new or meaningful stimuli when forming associations.
332
What is **Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution Theory**?
It proposes that the CS acts as a substitute for the US, coming to elicit the same response after repeated pairings.
## Footnote
This theory explains how a conditioned stimulus can trigger a response similar to that of an unconditioned stimulus.
333
According to **Stimulus Substitution Theory**, what happens when a tone is paired with food?
The tone becomes a substitute for the food and elicits salivation on its own.
## Footnote
This illustrates the core concept of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response.
334
How did **Pavlov view classical conditioning**?
As a neurological process in which cortical areas become linked, allowing one stimulus to activate another’s response pathway.
## Footnote
This perspective emphasizes the biological basis of learning and behavior.
335
In Pavlov’s model, what **brain areas** are involved in food-induced salivation?
* Food centre
* Salivation centre
## Footnote
The food activates a specific area in the cortex that triggers the salivation response.
336
How does a **neutral stimulus** become a conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s view?
Through repeated pairings, a connection forms between the cortical area activated by the NS and the one activated by the US.
## Footnote
This process is essential for classical conditioning to occur.
337
What sequence of **neural activation** did Pavlov propose for conditioning with a light and food?
Light (CS) → light centre → food centre → salivation centre → salivation (CR).
## Footnote
This sequence illustrates the pathway through which a conditioned response is elicited.
338
How does the **conditioned response (CR)** relate to the unconditioned response (UR) in Pavlov’s theory?
The CR is essentially the same as the UR, now elicited by a different stimulus due to new neural connections.
## Footnote
This highlights the similarity between conditioned and unconditioned responses.
339
What example illustrates **stimulus substitution** with an eye-blink response?
Pairing a click with an air puff causes the click alone to elicit an eyeblink, substituting for the puff.
## Footnote
This is a classic example of how a neutral stimulus can take on the properties of an unconditioned stimulus.
340
Why did **Pavlov believe studying conditioning** revealed brain processes?
Because it demonstrated how stimuli become neurologically linked in the cortex, showing how learning occurs at a biological level.
## Footnote
This belief underscores the importance of understanding the neural mechanisms behind learning.
341
What does **Stimulus Substitution Theory** suggest about the nature of learning?
Learning involves forming new neural connections that allow one stimulus to activate the brain pathways of another.
## Footnote
This concept is fundamental to understanding how associations are formed in the brain.
342
Front
Back
343
Why is Pavlov’s Stimulus Substitution Theory considered incomplete?
Because the real neurological processes behind conditioning are more complex than simple one-to-one cortical connections.
344
What is sign tracking?
It’s when an animal interacts with a conditioned stimulus (CS) as though it were the unconditioned stimulus (US)
345
What key flaw does Stimulus Substitution Theory have?
It assumes the CR and UR are always identical
346
Give an example where the CR differs from the UR.
A rat shocked by electricity (UR = jump) later freezes when seeing a light CS paired with the shock (CR = freeze).
347
What does the difference between CR and UR suggest?
That the CR’s purpose is to prepare the organism for the US
348
What does Preparatory Response Theory propose?
The CR functions to prepare the organism for the arrival of the US
349
How does Preparatory Response Theory explain the dog’s salivation to a tone?
The dog salivates in anticipation of food—the CR helps prepare for digestion.
350
How does Preparatory Response Theory explain freezing in rats?
The rat freezes to prepare for a potential shock
351
What is a key advantage of Preparatory Response Theory over Stimulus Substitution Theory?
It accounts for cases where the CR differs from the UR.
352
What happens in drug conditioning with heroin cues?
Environmental cues paired with heroin come to elicit an opposite response—an increase in blood pressure instead of a decrease.
353
What does the heroin example demonstrate about conditioning?
That the CR can be compensatory
354
What is the Compensatory Response Model?
A refinement of Preparatory Response Theory proposing that conditioned responses counteract the expected effects of drugs.
355
Why do conditioned drug responses matter?
Because they contribute to tolerance and withdrawal
356
What is the Compensatory Response Model?
A theory proposing that conditioned stimuli associated with a drug come to elicit physiological reactions opposite to the drug’s effects.
357
Which two theories underpin the Compensatory Response Model?
The Preparatory Response Theory and the Opponent Process Theory of Emotion.
358
What are the A-process and B-process in the Compensatory Response Model?
The A-process is the primary physiological effect of a drug; the B-process is the body’s compensatory response that restores balance.
359
In the heroin example, what is the A-process and B-process?
A-process: decrease in blood pressure from heroin; B-process: compensatory increase in blood pressure.
360
According to the model, what do heroin-related cues become associated with?
Not with the drug itself, but with the primary response to the drug (the A-process, e.g., decreased blood pressure).
361
What response do heroin-related cues eventually elicit?
A compensatory increase in blood pressure—the opposite of the drug’s direct effect.
362
How does compensatory conditioning help maintain homeostasis?
By eliciting the opposing reaction before the drug is taken, reducing the disturbance to internal balance.
363
Why are conditioned compensatory responses considered preparatory?
They prepare the body in advance for the expected physiological impact of the drug.
364
How does the Compensatory Response Model explain drug tolerance?
The body learns to counteract the drug before it’s taken, reducing its effect and requiring higher doses for the same outcome.
365
Why can drug users overdose when taking drugs in a new environment?
Because the usual conditioned compensatory responses don’t occur, leaving the drug’s full physiological impact unopposed.
366
How does the Compensatory Response Model extend classical conditioning?
It shows that a conditioned response (CR) can be opposite to the unconditioned response (UR) to prepare the organism for the US.
367
Front
Back
368
What are withdrawal symptoms according to the Compensatory Response Model?
They are compensatory responses to a drug’s effects
369
How does heroin illustrate compensatory conditioning?
Heroin’s relaxing effects (A-process) elicit compensatory agitation (B-process); with conditioning
370
What do heroin-related cues come to elicit after repeated pairings?
A conditioned compensatory response—feelings of agitation or craving that motivate further drug use.
371
Why do environmental cues trigger cravings after abstinence?
Because they have been conditioned to elicit the body’s compensatory responses to the drug
372
What did the Vietnam War example reveal about addiction and environment?
Soldiers who used heroin in Vietnam often remained drug-free at home because the environmental cues for heroin use were absent.
373
How do modern treatments use cue exposure to reduce cravings?
By repeatedly presenting drug-related cues (CSs) without the drug (US)
374
Why must cue exposure therapy be carefully managed for alcoholism?
Because sudden exposure to cues without the drug can trigger dangerous withdrawal symptoms that need supervision.
375
How does the Compensatory Response Model explain drug tolerance?
Environmental cues elicit compensatory physiological reactions that reduce the drug’s effects
376
What did McCusker and Brown (1990) find in their alcohol tolerance study?
Participants drinking in expected settings showed less impairment and smaller pulse increases due to conditioned compensatory responses.
377
What does situational drug tolerance imply for overdose risk?
Taking the same dose in an unfamiliar environment can be more dangerous because conditioned compensatory responses are absent.
378
Why do conditioned compensatory responses make relapse likely?
Because the discomfort and cravings they produce drive the person to seek the drug to relieve these conditioned withdrawal symptoms.
379
What does the Rescorla–Wagner Theory aim to explain?
How the strength of conditioning changes on each trial based on prediction and associative value.
380
What is associative value (V) in the Rescorla–Wagner model?
A measure of how strongly a conditioned stimulus (CS) predicts the unconditioned stimulus (US).
381
What is the key idea behind the Rescorla–Wagner Theory?
A given US can support only a limited amount of conditioning, which must be distributed among all present CSs.
382
What determines how much conditioning a US can support?
Its strength or intensity—stronger USs support more associative value than weaker ones.
383
What happens when one CS already predicts the US well?
Less associative value is available for other CSs, leading to effects like blocking.
384
In the Rescorla–Wagner model, what does λ (lambda) represent?
The maximum associative value the US can support (total learning possible).
385
What does V represent in the Rescorla–Wagner model?
The current associative strength of a CS at any given point during learning.
386
Give an example of associative value using Pavlov’s salivation experiment.
Tone paired with steak (Vmax = 10 drops of saliva) vs. tone paired with dog food (Vmax = 5 drops).
387
What happens to V over trials during conditioning?
It starts at 0 and increases toward λ as the CS–US association strengthens.
388
Why is the Rescorla–Wagner Theory important?
It mathematically formalized learning processes and explained complex phenomena like blocking and overshadowing.
389
According to the Rescorla–Wagner theory, what limits the total amount of conditioning that can occur?
The unconditioned stimulus (US) supports only a finite amount of associative value, which must be distributed among all conditioned stimuli (CSs) present during conditioning.
390
What determines how associative value is distributed among stimuli in compound conditioning?
The salience or noticeability of each CS — the more salient stimulus gains more associative strength.
391
How does the Rescorla–Wagner theory explain the overshadowing effect?
The stronger (more salient) stimulus in a compound acquires most of the associative value, leaving little or none for the weaker stimulus.
392
How does the Rescorla–Wagner theory explain the blocking effect?
Once a CS fully predicts the US and reaches maximum associative value, any new stimulus paired with it adds no new information and fails to become conditioned.
393
In cognitive terms, what does associative value represent?
The strength of the learner’s expectation that the US will occur when the CS is presented — learning reflects the development of accurate predictions.
394
Why does no learning occur to the light in a blocking procedure?
Because the tone already perfectly predicts the US, the light provides no new predictive information and remains redundant.
395
What does the Rescorla–Wagner model suggest about the nature of learning?
Conditioning depends on the reduction of prediction error — learning occurs only when the US is surprising or unexpected.
396
What does the Rescorla–Wagner model predict when two fully conditioned stimuli are later presented together as a compound?
The combined associative strength of the two stimuli exceeds the maximum supported by the US, producing a negative prediction error and causing each stimulus to lose associative strength — known as the overexpectation effect.
397
Why is the overexpectation effect considered counterintuitive?
Because even though the US (e.g., food) is still presented, the associative strength of each CS decreases instead of increasing — the animal “expected too much,” so learning is adjusted downward.
398
What does the overexpectation effect reveal about the nature of learning in the Rescorla–Wagner model?
Learning depends on prediction error — not mere pairing of stimuli and reinforcement. When the outcome is less than expected, associative strength declines.
399
How does classical conditioning contribute to the development of fears and phobias?
A neutral stimulus can become associated with an aversive stimulus, leading it to elicit a conditioned fear response.
400
What is the adaptive function of fear conditioning?
It motivates individuals to avoid genuinely dangerous situations, increasing chances of survival.
401
What is an example of fear conditioning becoming maladaptive?
When fear becomes exaggerated or spreads to harmless stimuli, resulting in irrational fears or phobias.
402
What process explains why phobias often spread to similar stimuli?
Overgeneralisation — when a conditioned fear response extends to other stimuli resembling the original CS.
403
Who conducted the first experimental demonstration of fear conditioning in humans?
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) in the Little Albert experiment.
404
What stimuli were used in the Little Albert study?
A white rat (neutral stimulus/CS) and a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus/US).
405
What was the unconditioned response (UR) in the Little Albert experiment?
A startle or fear reaction to the loud noise.
406
After conditioning, what became the conditioned response (CR) in the Little Albert study?
Fear in response to the white rat.
407
What demonstrated stimulus generalisation in the Little Albert study?
Albert showed fear toward objects resembling the rat, such as a rabbit, dog, fur coat, and Santa Claus mask.
408
What does the Little Albert experiment reveal about phobias?
Phobias can develop through classical conditioning and spread through stimulus generalisation to similar cues.
409
Why couldn’t Watson and Rayner test how to remove Albert’s fear?
Albert left the hospital before they could attempt to extinguish his conditioned fear responses.
410
Why is the Little Albert experiment considered a questionable demonstration of phobic conditioning?
Because it lacked experimental controls, required multiple pairings, and produced weak, short-lived reactions inconsistent with real phobias.
411
What is pseudo-conditioning, and how might it explain Albert’s reactions?
Pseudo-conditioning occurs when general sensitisation or upset from an aversive event causes reactions to other stimuli, rather than true CS–US pairing.
412
How did Albert’s thumb-sucking behaviour challenge the strength of his conditioning?
His fear disappeared when he was allowed to suck his thumb, showing the conditioned fear was easily counteracted by comfort behaviour.
413
How do real-life phobias typically differ from Albert’s conditioned fear?
Real phobias often form after one pairing, strengthen over time, and are resistant to extinction, unlike Albert’s weak and fading reactions.
414
What developmental explanation might better account for Albert’s responses?
At around two years of age, children naturally show fear of unusual or unfamiliar stimuli, like animals or masks.
415
What did later analyses of Watson’s film footage reveal?
They showed that Albert’s behaviour—such as crawling toward the rat or mild crying—was more consistent with curiosity or startle reactions than true fear.
416
Why are Watson and Rayner’s photographic stills often misinterpreted?
They appear to show fear but actually depict typical infant reactions to novelty or surprise, not conditioned phobia.
417
What did Watson and Rayner predict about Albert’s future, and why is it doubtful?
They speculated he would grow up neurotic and fearful of furry objects, but evidence suggests he did not develop such fears.
418
What broader conclusion can be drawn about phobia formation from the Little Albert critique?
Simple classical conditioning alone is insufficient to explain phobias; additional biological, emotional, and cognitive factors play a role.
419
What mystery surrounded the Little Albert experiment for decades?
The true identity and fate of the infant known as “Little Albert” were unknown.
420
Who first proposed an identification for Little Albert, and when?
Beck, Levinson, and Irons (2009) proposed that he was Douglas Merritte, son of Arvilla Merritte, a wet nurse at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
421
What evidence supported Douglas Merritte as a possible Little Albert?
Census and hospital records matched the mother’s occupation, residence, and the child’s age during Watson and Rayner’s study.
422
What happened to Douglas Merritte, the child identified as Little Albert?
He died at age six from hydrocephalus, preventing any investigation of his adult behaviour.
423
Why did later researchers question Douglas Merritte’s identification as Little Albert?
Evidence surfaced that Douglas had neurological impairments from birth, which contradicted Watson’s claim that Albert was a healthy child.
424
What ethical concern arose from claims about Douglas’s condition?
It was alleged that Watson knowingly experimented on a neurologically impaired infant and concealed this fact.
425
Who challenged the claim that Douglas Merritte was neurologically impaired?
Russ Powell and Nancy Digdon, who found no clear evidence of impairment in the film footage of Little Albert.
426
What did Powell, Digdon, Harris, and Smithson contribute to the investigation?
They re-analysed all available evidence, questioned earlier conclusions, and searched for alternative candidates for Little Albert.
427
Why is the Little Albert case significant for modern psychology?
It illustrates the importance of ethical research standards, historical accountability, and critical evaluation of early psychological studies.
428
Who did Powell, Digdon, Harris, and Smithson identify as the most likely “Little Albert”?
William Albert Martin (born Albert Barger), the son of Pearl Barger, a wet nurse at Johns Hopkins Hospital.
429
What key evidence supports Albert Barger/Martin as Little Albert?
His hospital records matched the age, weight, initials, and health description reported by Watson and Rayner.
430
Why did Watson refer to Little Albert as “adopted”?
Likely because Pearl Barger later married Charles Martin, who legally adopted Albert and changed his surname.
431
How did Albert Barger’s health compare with Watson’s description of Little Albert?
He was healthy and robust, weighing about 22 pounds at nine months—consistent with Watson and Rayner’s account.
432
What is significant about Albert Barger’s age at hospital discharge?
He was exactly 12 months and 21 days old—matching the age given by Watson and Rayner for Little Albert’s discharge.
433
What evidence challenges the idea that Albert developed a lasting phobia?
His aversion to animals was mild and seemed to stem from seeing his childhood dog run over, not from the experiment.
434
How did Albert’s family view the claim that he was Little Albert?
His niece reported he was easygoing and said he “would have been thrilled” to learn of his role in psychology’s history.
435
What does the rediscovery of Little Albert reveal about early psychological research?
It underscores the ethical issues of early experiments and the value of historical investigation in reassessing psychological history.
436
Why can’t all phobias be explained by direct classical conditioning?
Many people with phobias cannot recall a conditioning event, and most people exposed to trauma do not develop chronic fears.
437
What additional factors contribute to the development of phobias?
Observational learning, temperament, preparedness, incubation, U.S. revaluation, and selective sensitisation.
438
How does observational learning lead to phobic conditioning?
Fear can be acquired by observing fear reactions in others; the display of fear acts as a US that elicits fear in oneself.
439
Give an example of phobic conditioning through observation.
WWII children feared air raids if their mothers did; airmen developed combat fears after seeing fearful crewmates.
440
How does temperament influence fear conditioning?
Individuals with higher emotional reactivity condition more easily and are more likely to develop phobias.
441
What did Pavlov discover about temperament in conditioning?
Shy, withdrawn dogs conditioned faster than active, outgoing ones, showing that temperament affects conditioning strength.
442
Why did Watson choose Albert as his subject?
He believed Albert’s emotional stability would protect him from harmful conditioning effects.
443
What is preparedness in relation to phobic learning?
It’s the innate biological tendency to form fear associations more easily with certain stimuli, like snakes or spiders.
444
Who proposed the concept of preparedness, and when?
Valentine in 1930, after observing stronger fear reactions to animals (like caterpillars) than to neutral objects.
445
What does preparedness suggest about the evolution of fear?
Humans evolved to quickly learn fear of dangerous stimuli that posed threats to survival in ancestral environments.
446
What is preparedness in the context of fear conditioning?
An innate biological tendency to more easily learn fear of certain stimuli, especially those that were evolutionarily dangerous (e.g., snakes, spiders).
447
What did Cook & Mineka (1989) demonstrate with rhesus monkeys?
Monkeys developed fear only after observing a model reacting fearfully to fear-relevant stimuli (toy snake/crocodile), not neutral stimuli (flowers/toy rabbit).
448
What do Cook & Mineka’s findings suggest about preparedness?
That monkeys are biologically predisposed to learn fear of certain stimuli crucial for survival.
449
What did Soares & Öhman (1993) find about subliminal fear conditioning in humans?
Humans showed conditioned anxiety to subliminal fear-relevant stimuli (snakes, spiders) paired with shocks, but not to neutral images (flowers, mushrooms).
450
How does the Soares & Öhman (1993) study support preparedness theory?
It shows that humans unconsciously form fear associations more readily to evolutionarily threatening stimuli.
451
At what age do innate fear tendencies begin to emerge in humans?
Around age two, when children start showing fear responses to certain stimuli like snakes or spiders.
452
What is the key difference between temperament and preparedness?
Temperament refers to how easily an individual acquires any phobia; preparedness refers to how easily a species acquires certain phobias.
453
Provide an example illustrating temperament vs. preparedness.
Jason develops phobias more easily than Samantha = temperament; people fear snakes more easily than toasters = preparedness.
454
How do temperament and preparedness together influence phobic learning?
Temperament determines personal susceptibility, while preparedness shapes which fears are most readily learned across the species.
455
What is incubation in classical conditioning?
Incubation is the strengthening of a conditioned fear response as a result of brief or occasional exposures to the conditioned stimulus (CS) without the unconditioned stimulus (US).
456
Why does incubation occur?
Because individuals tend to avoid the feared stimulus, preventing full extinction; any encounters that do occur are brief, which paradoxically strengthens the fear response.
457
Give an example of incubation.
A child bitten by a dog develops a moderate fear, but by repeatedly running away from dogs afterward, the fear intensifies into a severe phobia.
458
What does incubation contradict about classical conditioning?
It contradicts the usual rule that presenting the CS without the US should lead to extinction.
459
How might cognitive exposure (e.g., worrying) contribute to incubation?
Thinking repeatedly about the feared stimulus can act as mental exposure and maintain or strengthen the conditioned fear response.
460
What is the practical lesson often related to incubation?
"If you fall off a horse, get back on immediately"—delaying exposure can make fear stronger.
461
What is US revaluation (US inflation/deflation)?
A process where exposure to a different intensity or value of the unconditioned stimulus (US) alters the strength of response to a previously conditioned CS.
462
Give an example of US revaluation in phobias.
A skateboarder who had a minor injury and little fear may later develop strong anxiety toward skateboarding after suffering or witnessing a severe injury.
463
How can observational learning cause US revaluation?
Observing someone experience a severe version of an event previously experienced mildly can increase the conditioned fear response (US inflation).
464
How can verbal information produce US inflation?
Learning new information that increases the perceived danger of a past event (e.g., hearing a robber had killed others) can intensify fear or lead to PTSD.
465
What psychological disorder can result from US revaluation?
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) can develop when new information or later experiences magnify the perceived threat of a prior event.
466
Why can psychological debriefing after trauma sometimes increase PTSD risk?
Because structured debriefings can heighten a person’s perception of trauma severity, making the event feel more threatening and sometimes inducing PTSD symptoms.
467
What approach has replaced traditional psychological debriefing?
Empirically based methods that respect individual coping styles and avoid unintentionally reinforcing trauma-related distress.
468
What is selective sensitization?
An increase in reactivity to a potentially fearful stimulus following exposure to an unrelated stressful event.
469
Provide an example of selective sensitization.
Someone going through a stressful divorce finds that a mild fear of driving in traffic suddenly becomes severe anxiety.
470
What does selective sensitization suggest about stress and fear?
That during periods of high stress, minor fears can become amplified into major anxieties.
471
What types of treatments are most effective for phobias?
Behavioural treatments based on classical conditioning principles, particularly systematic desensitization and flooding.
472
Who conducted the first known behavioural treatment for a phobia?
Mary Cover Jones (1924), under John B. Watson’s supervision.
473
How did Mary Cover Jones treat Peter’s fear of rabbits?
She paired cookies (eliciting positive emotions) with gradual exposure to a rabbit until Peter could hold it calmly.
474
What principle underlies Jones’s method?
Counterconditioning — pairing a feared stimulus with a positive or relaxing stimulus to replace fear with calm.
475
Who later refined and popularized systematic desensitization?
Joseph Wolpe, who rediscovered the method in the 1950s through animal research on fear extinction.
476
What experiment led Wolpe to develop systematic desensitization?
Cats conditioned to fear a room through electric shocks were gradually fed in rooms increasingly similar to the fear room until the fear response disappeared.
477
What behavioural process did Wolpe’s method demonstrate?
Counterconditioning and extinction — replacing fear with relaxation and positive associations.
478
What is counterconditioning?
A process in which a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits one type of response is paired with an event that elicits an incompatible response.
479
What example of counterconditioning did Wolpe demonstrate?
The experimental room originally elicited fear due to shocks, but later elicited a positive emotional response after being paired with food.
480
What is reciprocal inhibition?
The process by which one response is inhibited by the simultaneous occurrence of an incompatible response (e.g., relaxation inhibits anxiety).
481
How does reciprocal inhibition work in counterconditioning?
A positive emotional response (such as relaxation) suppresses or replaces the fear or anxiety response to a stimulus.
482
Why did Wolpe choose relaxation for counterconditioning humans instead of food?
Eating was impractical for most therapy contexts, while deep muscle relaxation was simple, effective, and incompatible with anxiety.
483
What problem did Wolpe solve with imagined exposure?
Real-life exposure to many phobic stimuli (like thunderstorms) is difficult; visualisation allows graded exposure in therapy.
484
What is systematic desensitization?
A behavioural treatment for phobias that pairs relaxation with a series of fear-evoking stimuli arranged in a hierarchy from least to most anxiety-provoking.
485
What are the three main steps in Wolpe’s systematic desensitization procedure?
1️⃣ Training in relaxation 2️⃣ Creation of a hierarchy of imagined fear scenes 3️⃣ Gradual pairing of each scene with relaxation until anxiety is eliminated.
486
What technique is commonly used for relaxation training?
An abbreviated form of Jacobson’s (1938) deep muscle relaxation procedure.
487
How many scenes are typically used in a fear hierarchy?
Around 10 to 15, starting with mildly fearful scenes and ending with the most intense.
488
What happens once the top of the hierarchy is reached?
Most of the person’s fear is eliminated, allowing them to face the real stimulus with minimal anxiety.
489
What limitation exists with imagined exposure in systematic desensitization?
The counterconditioning occurs to imagined stimuli, so the effects must generalize to real-world stimuli—but vivid imagery usually allows strong generalization.
490
imaginal desensitisation
A form of systematic desensitisation that uses imagined rather than real stimuli while pairing them with relaxation to reduce fear responses.
491
in vivo desensitisation
Systematic desensitisation conducted with real-life stimuli rather than imagined ones.
492
Who conducted the first example of in vivo desensitisation?
Mary Cover Jones, when she helped Peter overcome his fear of rabbits.
493
What is a key advantage of in vivo desensitisation?
There is no need to worry about generalising the treatment effect to real-world stimuli since real stimuli are used from the start.
494
What is a major drawback of in vivo desensitisation?
For severe phobias, even minimal exposure to the real stimulus can elicit intense anxiety.
495
How can imaginal and in vivo desensitisation be combined effectively?
Begin with imaginal desensitisation to reduce fear, then progress to in vivo desensitisation for full extinction and real-world transfer.
496
Who are Spiegler and Guevremont?
Authors of behaviour modification texts providing detailed guidance on systematic desensitisation techniques.
497
What types of phobias respond best to systematic desensitisation?
Specific phobias (e.g., spiders, flying), rather than broad or generalised phobias (e.g., social anxiety).
498
What limitations affect imaginal desensitisation?
It requires clients who can vividly visualise and experience genuine anxiety during imagery.
499
What is VR desensitisation?
A modern adaptation using virtual reality to simulate feared situations safely and realistically.
500
What advantages does VR desensitisation offer?
It provides realism without real-world risks, bridging the gap between imaginal and in vivo exposure.
501
Give an example of when VR desensitisation is useful.
Treating fear of flying without needing real flights or exposure to unpredictable turbulence.
502
How effective is VR desensitisation compared to traditional methods?
Research shows it can be as effective as in vivo desensitisation for some phobias.
503
What are the two theoretical explanations for systematic desensitisation?
(1) Counterconditioning via reciprocal inhibition, and (2) Extinction via repeated exposure without the US.
504
What does the extinction explanation suggest about desensitisation?
Fear diminishes simply because the CS is repeatedly presented without any negative consequence, with relaxation being unnecessary.
505
What evidence supports the counterconditioning explanation?
Severe phobias often respond better when relaxation is included, implying an active role for reciprocal inhibition.
506
What is the current consensus about the mechanism of desensitisation?
Both counterconditioning and extinction likely contribute to its effectiveness, depending on the situation and severity of the phobia.
PSY310 Learning & Cognition
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Chapter 1 Introduction191
-
Introduction To Cognitive Psychology98
-
Attention150
-
JA - Driver (2001) Attention166
-
Visual Perception206
-
Short Term Memory266
-
LTM: Structure281
-
LTM: Encoding, Retrieval. & Consolidation162
-
Language233
-
Rendall (2021) Aping Language152
-
Innate Behaviour And Non-associative Learning322
-
Operant Conditioning230
-
Classical Conditioning506
-
Observational Learning0
