1
Q
Definition of memory (psychology)
A
The process of retaining, retrieving, and using information about stimuli, images, events, ideas, and skills after the original information is no longer present.
2
Q
Alternative definition of memory
A
Any time a past experience has an effect on the way you think or behave now or in the future.
3
Q
Sensory memory definition
A
Brief persistence of an image or sensory impression after the stimulus is gone, lasting fractions of a second.
4
Q
Example of sensory memory
A
Seeing a face illuminated by a flash and holding the image briefly in the dark.
5
Q
Short-term memory (STM) definition
A
Stores information for about 10–15 seconds without rehearsal; can be extended by repetition.
6
Q
Example of short-term memory use
A
Repeating a phone number over and over until it can be written down.
7
Q
Long-term memory (LTM) definition
A
Stores information for long periods, from minutes to a lifetime.
8
Q
Episodic memory definition
A
Long-term memory of personal experiences, such as a picnic in the woods.
9
Q
Procedural memory definition
A
Long-term memory for skills and actions involving muscle coordination, such as riding a bicycle.
10
Q
Semantic memory definition
A
Long-term memory for facts, such as an address, birthday, or object names.
11
Q
Common misconception about STM duration
A
People often think STM lasts minutes or hours, but it is actually much briefer.
12
Q
Why STM is often underestimated
A
People usually list long-term memory uses, and technology reduces the need to rely on STM for tasks like remembering phone numbers.
13
Q
Purpose of sensory memory
A
To capture immediate sensory information briefly, important for tasks like watching movies.
14
Q
What does short-term memory (STM) contain at any moment?
A
Everything you are aware of or thinking about in the present moment.
15
Q
How quickly does STM content change?
A
Old STM content fades within seconds and is replaced by new information.
16
Q
Why is STM important despite its short duration?
A
It is constantly used for immediate tasks and moment-to-moment awareness.
17
Q
Who proposed the modal model of memory and when?
A
Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, 1968.
18
Q
Three types of memory in the modal model
A
Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
19
Q
Sensory memory function in the modal model
A
Holds all incoming information for seconds or fractions of a second.
20
Q
Short-term memory function in the modal model
A
Holds 5–7 items for about 15–20 seconds.
21
Q
Long-term memory function in the modal model
A
Holds large amounts of information for years or decades.
22
Q
What are structural features in the modal model?
A
The fixed types of memory stores: sensory memory, STM, and LTM.
23
Q
What are control processes in the modal model?
A
Dynamic processes controlled by the person, such as rehearsal, memorization strategies, and selective attention.
24
Q
Example of rehearsal in STM
A
Repeating a phone number to keep it active in short-term memory.
25
Encoding definition
The process of storing information from STM into LTM.
26
Retrieval definition
The process of bringing information from LTM back into STM for conscious awareness.
27
Why do memory components not act in isolation?
Information often moves between STM and LTM; for example, recalling a stored phone number to use it.
28
Definition of sensory memory
Retention, for brief periods, of the effects of sensory stimulation.
29
Example of persistence of vision in daily life
The trail of light seen when moving a sparkler in the dark.
30
Persistence of vision definition
Continued perception of a visual stimulus after it is no longer present, lasting fractions of a second.
31
Why persistence of vision is noticeable for brief stimuli
Because the stimulus is gone quickly, making the retained image more apparent.
32
How persistence of vision works in movies
It fills in the dark gaps between projected frames, creating the illusion of smooth motion.
33
Standard frame rate for films
24 frames per second, each followed by a brief period of darkness.
34
Why viewers don't see the dark gaps between movie frames
Persistence of vision retains the image from the previous frame during darkness.
35
Who investigated sensory store capacity and duration in 1960?
George Sperling.
36
Sperling's whole report method
Participants saw a 12-letter array for 50 ms and reported as many as possible; average recall was 4.5 letters.
37
Why Sperling developed the partial report method
Participants reported seeing all letters but their memory faded before they could report them all.
38
Sperling's partial report method
After a 12-letter display, a tone cued which row to report; participants recalled about 3.3 of 4 letters (82%) in the cued row.
39
What Sperling concluded from the partial report results
Immediately after display, most letters were available in sensory memory but faded before all could be reported.
40
Sperling's delayed partial report method
Cues given after a short delay; recall dropped sharply, showing rapid sensory memory decay.
41
Recall performance with 1-second delay in Sperling's delayed partial report
Participants recalled only slightly more than one letter per cued row.
42
Sperling's conclusion about sensory memory
Registers most visual input but decays in less than a second.
43
Iconic memory definition
Brief sensory memory for visual stimuli, lasting less than a second.
44
Echoic memory definition
Persistence of sound in the mind for a few seconds after the original stimulus.
45
Example of echoic memory
Hearing someone’s words in your mind just after saying 'What?'
46
Definition of short-term memory (STM) in the modal model
Stores small amounts of information for a brief period; represents what we are thinking about at the moment.
47
Why STM is called the 'window of the present'
It holds current thoughts and awareness at any given moment.
48
Relationship between STM and LTM in awareness
Information can be brought from LTM into STM to enter conscious awareness.
49
Two key research questions about STM
What is its duration? What is its capacity?
50
Recall method in memory experiments
Participants are presented with stimuli, then after a delay report as many as possible; performance is measured as a percentage recalled.
51
Example of recall percentage calculation
Recalling 3 out of 10 studied words equals 30% recall.
52
What can recall analysis reveal about responses?
Patterns, such as grouping similar items together during recall.
53
Cognitive psychology definition of STM duration
Lasts 15–20 seconds or less when rehearsal is prevented.
54
Who demonstrated STM duration experimentally?
John Brown (UK) and Lloyd & Margaret Peterson (USA), 1959.
55
Peterson & Peterson STM duration experiment procedure
Participants saw 3 letters followed by a number, then counted backward by threes to prevent rehearsal, before recalling letters.
56
Peterson & Peterson STM duration results
Recall dropped from about 80% after 3 seconds to about 12% after 18 seconds of counting backward.
57
Conclusion from Peterson & Peterson STM experiment
Without rehearsal, STM duration is about 15–20 seconds or less.
58
Definition of digit span
The number of digits a person can remember and reproduce in the correct order.
59
Average digit span capacity
About 5–9 items, roughly the length of a phone number.
60
Who proposed the 'magical number seven, plus or minus two'?
George Miller, 1956.
61
More recent STM capacity estimate
About 4 items, based on change detection experiments.
62
Researchers who used change detection to measure STM capacity
Stephen Luck and Edward Vogel, 1997.
63
Change detection method
Two images are shown in sequence; participants indicate if the second image is the same or different from the first.
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Luck & Vogel STM capacity result
Near-perfect performance with 1–3 items; performance declines with 4 or more items.
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STM capacity estimate from Luck & Vogel
Participants could retain about 4 items in STM.
66
Other research on STM capacity
Verbal material experiments also support a capacity of about 4–5 items.
67
Definition of chunking
Combining small units into larger, meaningful units to increase memory span.
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Who introduced chunking and when?
George Miller, 1956, in his '7 plus or minus 2' paper.
69
Example of chunking words
Grouping unrelated words into meaningful phrases or sentences to aid recall.
70
Effect of chunking on STM span
Increases recall from 5–8 unrelated words to 20 or more words when arranged meaningfully.
71
Definition of a chunk
A collection of elements strongly associated with each other but weakly associated with elements in other chunks.
72
Effect of chunking on remembering letter sequences
Chunking letters into meaningful units, such as names of familiar organisations, improves recall.
73
Example of chunking with letter sequences
C, I, A, F, B, I, N, B, C, C, B, S grouped into CIA, FBI, NBC, CBS.
74
K. Anders Ericsson et al. (1980) chunking study participant
SF, a college student with average memory, increased digit span from 7 to 79 digits after training.
75
How SF increased his digit span
Recoded digits into meaningful sequences, such as running times, based on long-term memory knowledge.
76
What SF’s case illustrates about STM and LTM
STM capacity can be expanded by using LTM knowledge to form meaningful chunks.
77
Everyday examples of chunking
Grouping telephone number prefixes, chunking letters, or summarising long conversations into smaller units.
78
Alternative way to define STM capacity
In terms of amount of information (visual features or details), not just number of items.
79
Analogy for STM capacity and image size
Like a flash drive holding fewer large, detailed pictures because they take up more space.
80
Alvarez & Cavanagh (2004) STM capacity experiment
Used change detection with coloured squares and complex objects; found capacity decreases with stimulus complexity.
81
Alvarez & Cavanagh results for coloured squares vs. cubes
Capacity was 4.4 items for squares but only 1.6 for complex cubes.
82
Conclusion from Alvarez & Cavanagh study
Greater information complexity reduces the number of items that can be held in STM.
83
Ongoing debate about STM capacity measurement
Some researchers focus on number of items; others focus on amount of detailed information. Both agree there are limits.
84
Two main STM properties discussed so far
Duration (how long information is held) and capacity (how much can be held).
85
STM as described in the modal model
Primarily a short-term storage mechanism, like a leaky bucket holding a fixed amount for a limited time.
86
Why the modal model view of STM is too narrow
It overlooks the manipulation of information for tasks like reasoning and comprehension.
87
Working memory definition (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
A limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex tasks like comprehension, learning, and reasoning.
88
Key difference between STM and working memory
STM mainly stores information briefly; working memory also manipulates information during complex cognition.
89
Example of working memory in conversation
Holding earlier sentences in memory to understand connections in later dialogue.
90
Example of working memory in mental arithmetic
Holding partial results while performing calculations, such as multiplying 43 × 6 in your head.
91
Why mental arithmetic demonstrates working memory
It requires both storage and active processing at the same time.
92
Reason for term 'working memory'
Reflects that the process involves more than storage, including dynamic manipulation of information.
93
Relationship between STM and working memory in modern usage
Often used interchangeably, but with the understanding that the function extends beyond storage.
94
Baddeley's finding on STM multitasking
Participants could hold a short string of numbers while reading or solving simple problems, showing STM can handle two tasks.
95
Why Baddeley's finding challenges the modal model
The modal model suggested STM could only handle one task at a time, fully occupying its capacity.
96
Baddeley's conclusion about working memory
It is dynamic and consists of multiple components that can function separately.
97
Three components of Baddeley's working memory model
Phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive.
98
Phonological loop function
Holds verbal and auditory information, with a phonological store and an articulatory rehearsal process.
99
Phonological store
Limited capacity store holding information for a few seconds.
100
Articulatory rehearsal process
Rehearses items to keep them from decaying in the phonological store.
101
Visuospatial sketchpad function
Holds visual and spatial information, used for mental imagery, puzzles, and navigation.
102
Central executive function
Coordinates the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, pulls from LTM, allocates attention, and manages task switching.
103
Analogy for the central executive
Acts like a traffic cop, directing focus between verbal and visual-spatial information and filtering distractions.
104
Example of central executive in action
Driving in a new city while listening to directions and ignoring the car radio.
105
Three phenomena supporting the phonological loop
Phonological similarity effect, word length effect, articulatory suppression.
106
Phonological similarity effect definition
Confusion of letters or words that sound similar, even when presented visually.
107
Who demonstrated the phonological similarity effect and when?
R. Conrad, 1964.
108
Example of phonological similarity effect
Letter F misidentified as S or X (similar sounds) rather than E (similar visual form).
109
Why phonological similarity effect occurs
Letters/words are processed in the phonological store, which encodes by sound.
110
Word length effect definition
Better memory for lists of short words than long words.
111
Reason for the word length effect
Longer words take more time to pronounce, rehearse, and recall, reducing memory span.
112
Pronunciation time limit for STM span
Number of items that can be pronounced in about 1.5–2 seconds matches digit span.
113
Articulatory suppression definition
Repetition of an irrelevant sound that prevents rehearsal and reduces memory performance.
114
Effect of articulatory suppression on word recall
Makes it harder to remember lists because rehearsal is blocked.
115
Effect of articulatory suppression on the word length effect
Eliminates the advantage of short words by preventing rehearsal, causing loss of both short and long words.
116
Function of the visuospatial sketchpad
Handles visual and spatial information, including visual imagery.
117
Definition of visual imagery
Creation of visual images in the mind without a physical stimulus.
118
Shepard & Metzler (1971) mental rotation finding
Reaction times increased as the degree of object rotation increased, indicating mental rotation in the mind.
119
What mental rotation demonstrates
Operation of the visuospatial sketchpad through visual manipulation in space.
120
De la Sala et al. (1999) visual pattern recall task
Participants viewed patterns with shaded squares and reproduced them from memory; average span was 9 shaded squares.
121
Possible reason participants recalled 9 squares in De la Sala’s task
Squares could be combined into larger units via chunking.
122
Lee Brooks (1968) interference finding
Visuospatial tasks interfere with each other, but not with verbal tasks handled by the phonological loop.
123
Brooks’ F task - pointing vs. speaking
Pointing 'out' or 'in' while visualising the F is harder due to both being visuospatial tasks; saying 'out' or 'in' is easier.
124
Why pointing overloaded the visuospatial sketchpad in Brooks’ experiment
Both holding the image and pointing are visuospatial tasks, competing for the same system.
125
Why saying 'out' or 'in' did not interfere in Brooks’ experiment
Speaking uses the phonological loop, avoiding competition with visuospatial processing.
126
What is the main function of the Central Executive in working memory?
To coordinate how information is used by the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad; acts as the control centre.
127
Does the Central Executive store information?
No, it coordinates the use of information rather than storing it.
128
What role does the Central Executive play in attention?
It determines how attention is focused, divided between tasks, and switched between tasks.
129
Which real-life example illustrates the Central Executive coordinating multiple processes?
Driving while talking on the phone—coordinating phonological loop (conversation) and visuospatial sketchpad (navigation).
130
Which brain region plays a central role in working memory and is linked to the Central Executive?
The frontal lobe.
131
What is perseveration, and what causes it?
The repeated performance of the same action or thought even when it’s no longer effective; linked to frontal lobe damage.
132
In the rule-switching example, what error might someone with frontal lobe damage make?
Continuing to pick the red object even after the rule changes to picking the blue object.
133
Why did Baddeley propose the episodic buffer?
To explain how working memory can hold more than expected from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad alone.
134
What does the episodic buffer do?
Stores information, provides extra capacity, and connects working memory with long-term memory.
135
How is the episodic buffer related to chunking and long-term memory?
It supports chunking and facilitates the exchange of information with long-term memory, such as using word meanings and grammar rules.
136
How many words can people remember in long sentences, and which processes enable this?
15–20 words; enabled by chunking and interaction with long-term memory.
137
Is the exact functioning of the episodic buffer fully understood?
No, it is still a work in progress and in early development.
138
What is the main take-home message about the episodic buffer?
It increases storage capacity and enables communication with long-term memory.
139
Which brain structure has historically dominated research on working memory?
The prefrontal cortex (PFC).
140
What famous case first highlighted possible links between frontal lobes and behaviour?
Phineas Gage's tamping rod accident in 1848.
141
What key cognitive function is impaired by frontal lobe damage, affecting working memory?
Controlling attention.
142
In the monkey delayed response task, what must the monkey remember during the delay?
Which food well contained the food reward.
143
What does the poor performance of PFC-lesioned monkeys on the delayed response task suggest?
The PFC is essential for holding information for brief periods.
144
Why might infants younger than 8 months fail to remember hidden objects?
Their frontal and prefrontal cortices are not yet fully developed.
145
What did Funahashi et al. (1989) discover about PFC neurons during a delayed response task?
Some PFC neurons fired during the delay, holding information about a stimulus location.
146
What does sustained firing of PFC neurons during a delay indicate?
That the stimulus information remains available in working memory.
147
According to Mark Stokes (2015), how can information be held in working memory without continuous neural firing?
By short-term changes in neural networks, where initial brief neural firing strengthens certain synaptic connections (activity-silent working memory) that last a few seconds until retrieval.
148
What is 'activity-silent working memory' in Stokes' model?
A form of working memory storage where information is maintained by temporary changes in synaptic connectivity between neurons rather than ongoing neural firing.
149
In Stokes' model, what happens when information is retrieved from working memory?
The strengthened synaptic connections trigger a specific pattern of neural firing that represents the stored information.
150
Why might working memory involve more than just the prefrontal cortex?
Because working memory tasks often require integrating visual, verbal, and attentional processes, which depend on multiple brain areas.
151
What does figure 5.24 symbolise about working memory in the brain?
It symbolises distributed representation, showing a network where multiple brain areas interact through reverberating signals between perception, sustained attention, rehearsal, goals, and long-term memory.
152
What is an example of distributed representation in working memory?
When driving while following verbal directions, the brain integrates visual-spatial information from one area with verbal processing from another.
153
According to Mark Stokes (2015), how can information be held in working memory without continuous neural firing?
By short-term changes in neural networks, where initial brief neural firing strengthens certain synaptic connections (activity-silent working memory) that last a few seconds until retrieval.
154
What is 'activity-silent working memory' in Stokes' model?
A form of working memory storage where information is maintained by temporary changes in synaptic connectivity between neurons rather than ongoing neural firing.
155
In Stokes' model, what happens when information is retrieved from working memory?
The strengthened synaptic connections trigger a specific pattern of neural firing that represents the stored information.
156
Why might working memory involve more than just the prefrontal cortex?
Because working memory tasks often require integrating visual, verbal, and attentional processes, which depend on multiple brain areas.
157
What does figure 5.24 symbolise about working memory in the brain?
It symbolises distributed representation, showing a network where multiple brain areas interact through reverberating signals between perception, sustained attention, rehearsal, goals, and long-term memory.
158
What is an example of distributed representation in working memory?
When driving while following verbal directions, the brain integrates visual-spatial information from one area with verbal processing from another.
159
Who warned that writing would implant forgetfulness in people's souls?
Plato (around 300 BC)
## Footnote
Plato expressed concerns about the impact of writing on memory.
160
What new technology was Plato concerned would harm memory?
Books
## Footnote
Plato believed that reliance on written texts would diminish human memory.
161
According to Plato, why would books harm memory?
Because people would rely on external marks (written text) instead of exercising their memory
## Footnote
Plato argued that this reliance could lead to forgetfulness.
162
What modern parallel can be drawn to Plato’s concerns about books?
Concerns that the internet and digital devices reduce critical thinking and reliance on memory
## Footnote
Similar fears exist today regarding technology's impact on cognitive skills.
163
What is memory?
Processes involved in encoding, storing, and retrieving information for later use
## Footnote
Memory is crucial for learning and cognition.
164
Why is memory important?
It shapes our thinking and behaviour, and is essential for learning
## Footnote
Memory influences our decision-making and interactions.
165
What are the three key processes of memory?
Encoding, storage, and retrieval
## Footnote
These processes work together to facilitate memory function.
166
What happens during encoding?
Information from the external environment is converted into mental representations that can be stored
## Footnote
This is the first step in creating a memory.
167
What is storage in memory?
The process of retaining encoded information in the mind
## Footnote
Storage allows information to be kept for future use.
168
What is retrieval in memory?
Accessing stored information when needed
## Footnote
Retrieval is crucial for recalling learned information.
169
What are the three main types of memory?
Sensory memory, short-term/working memory, and long-term memory
## Footnote
Each type plays a unique role in how we process information.
170
What is sensory memory?
The initial stage where information enters the mind from the external environment
## Footnote
Sensory memory holds information for a very brief period.
171
What is long-term memory?
A knowledge base where information is stored for a long time
## Footnote
Long-term memory can retain information indefinitely.
172
What is short-term memory?
A memory system focused on temporary storage of information
## Footnote
Short-term memory typically holds information for a limited duration.
173
What is working memory?
A memory system that not only stores information temporarily but also processes and manipulates it
## Footnote
Working memory is essential for complex cognitive tasks.
174
What assumption of early memory models is challenged by cases of people with short-term memory deficits but intact long-term memory?
That information must pass from sensory → short-term → long-term memory in sequence.
175
Why does evidence of intact long-term memory despite short-term memory deficits challenge early memory models?
Because if STM is necessary for LTM storage, deficits in STM should also impair LTM.
176
What key limitation do early memory models have in relation to learning processes?
They ignore implicit learning and assume conscious attention is always required.
177
What is implicit learning?
Learning that occurs without conscious awareness, such as imitating movements by observation.
178
According to early memory models, what role does attention play in moving information through the stages?
Information must be consciously attended to in sensory memory for it to reach STM and LTM.
179
Why do early memory models struggle to explain implicit learning?
Because they assume only consciously attended information is stored.
180
What limitation of early memory models concerns types of information?
They do not account for different modalities of information (visual, auditory, etc.).
181
What does later research show about multitasking different modalities of information?
People can juggle one visual and one auditory task together, but not two of the same type (two visual or two auditory).
182
Why can’t people successfully do two visual tasks or two auditory tasks at the same time?
Because tasks of the same modality interfere with each other.
183
What are the sensory memory stores for visual and auditory information called?
Iconic memory (visual) and echoic memory (auditory).
184
What is the typical duration of sensory memory?
Less than one second.
185
Why is sensory memory so short in duration?
Because the environment provides too much information, so only the most important details are retained.
186
What is the adaptive purpose of short sensory memory?
It prevents overload by filtering irrelevant information and focusing on potentially important stimuli (e.g., a dangerous animal in the room).
187
Why is sensory memory so short-lived?
Because the environment provides too much constant information, making it inefficient to store everything; only important details are attended to and retained.
188
Who provided key evidence for sensory memory?
George Sperling.
189
What did George Sperling show participants in his classic experiment?
A grid of nine letters flashed very briefly (less than a second).
190
How many letters could participants typically recall when the nine letters were flashed?
About 5–7 letters.
191
What explanation did people initially believe for the 5–7 letter recall limit?
That sensory memory could not hold all the information.
192
What alternative explanation did Sperling propose for limited recall?
All the information is briefly available but decays very quickly.
193
How did Sperling test whether information was briefly available in sensory memory?
By flashing nine letters then playing a high, medium, or low tone to indicate which row to recall.
194
What did participants have to do when hearing a high, medium, or low tone in Sperling’s experiment?
Recall the top row (high tone), middle row (medium tone), or bottom row (low tone).
195
What did Sperling’s results show about sensory memory?
That all information was initially available but decayed rapidly unless attention was directed to a specific part.
196
What does Sperling’s experiment demonstrate about attention and sensory memory?
That cues can direct attention to retain specific information before sensory memory fades.
197
What is the typical capacity of short-term memory according to Miller (1956)?
7 ± 2 items (5–9 items).
198
What does Miller’s finding of 7 ± 2 items mean?
That short-term memory can usually hold about 5–9 separate items at once.
199
How can people remember more than 5–9 items in short-term memory?
By using strategies such as chunking or mnemonics.
200
What is chunking in memory?
Grouping separate pieces of information into larger, meaningful units to increase memory capacity.
201
Give an example of chunking.
Remembering 290920 as 29–09–20 (chunks) instead of 6 separate digits.
202
Why do people remember phone numbers more easily when split into smaller groups?
Because chunking reduces cognitive load and allows more information to be stored in short-term memory.
203
What is an acronym as a memory aid?
A word formed from the first letters of items to be remembered (e.g., OCEAN for the Big Five personality traits).
204
What does the acronym OCEAN stand for?
Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
205
What is a jingle or rhyme as a mnemonic device?
A rhythmic or rhyming phrase that helps recall information (e.g., '30 days hath September, April, June, and November').
206
Why are rhymes and jingles effective memory aids?
Because their rhythm and repetition make information easier to encode and retrieve.
207
Give an example of an acronym mnemonic outside psychology.
N-E-S-W for compass directions (North, East, South, West).
208
What is the PEEL structure used for?
Essay writing (Point, Example, Explanation, Link)
209
In a short-term memory classroom exercise, how many unrelated words were presented?
15 words
210
How many words can people typically recall without mnemonic aids in such tasks?
About 5–9 words (7 ± 2)
211
What did a student in the STM exercise use to improve recall?
Visual imagery (picturing each word)
212
Why is visual imagery considered a mnemonic aid?
Because it creates mental images that help encode and retrieve information more effectively
213
What does the STM exercise demonstrate about memory capacity?
Without strategies, STM holds 5–9 items; with mnemonic aids, recall can be significantly improved
214
How does the STM word recall exercise relate to Miller’s 7 ± 2 principle?
It provides practical evidence that STM capacity is limited but can be expanded with strategies
215
What is the role of the episodic buffer in Baddeley’s model of working memory?
It integrates information from different subsystems (phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad) and links working memory with long-term memory.
216
How does the episodic buffer connect working memory and long-term memory?
It brings information from long-term memory into working memory so it can be manipulated.
217
What are the four main components of Baddeley’s working memory model?
* Central executive
* Phonological loop
* Visuospatial sketchpad
* Episodic buffer
218
What is the function of the central executive?
It controls attention and coordinates the activity of the subsystems.
219
What is the function of the phonological loop?
It temporarily stores and processes verbal and auditory information.
220
What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad?
It temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information.
221
What does the episodic buffer add to the working memory model?
An integrative system that combines information from multiple modalities and interacts with long-term memory.
222
Who developed the working memory model?
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch.
223
What was the Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) model commonly called?
The modal model.
224
What did the Atkinson & Shiffrin modal model assume about memory storage?
That information flowed from sensory buffers into a unitary short-term store acting as working memory.
225
How did Atkinson & Shiffrin define working memory?
As a temporary system used for tasks like reasoning, learning, and comprehension.
226
What were two problems with the Atkinson & Shiffrin modal model?
* It assumed holding information longer automatically improved learning
* It did not account for deeper levels of processing
227
What did Craik & Lockhart’s levels of processing framework show?
That deeper, more meaningful processing leads to better learning than simply rehearsing information.
228
Why is maintenance rehearsal considered inefficient for learning?
Because repeating information without deep processing does not strengthen long-term memory encoding.
229
According to levels of processing research, why do people remember words better when asked about meaning?
Because deeper, semantic processing leads to stronger memory encoding than shallow features like appearance or sound.
230
What is an example of shallow processing in Craik & Lockhart’s levels of processing theory?
Judging if a word is in capital letters.
231
What is an example of intermediate processing in Craik & Lockhart’s levels of processing theory?
Judging if a word rhymes with another (e.g., dog).
232
What is an example of deep processing in Craik & Lockhart’s levels of processing theory?
Judging the meaning of a word (e.g., if it fits into a sentence).
233
Who was patient H.M., and what was his memory profile?
A man who had his hippocampus removed to treat epilepsy; he became densely amnesic but still had intact short-term memory (e.g., could repeat a phone number).
234
Which brain structure was removed in patient H.M.’s surgery?
The hippocampus (bilateral removal).
235
What did H.M.’s case demonstrate about memory systems?
That short-term memory can remain intact despite profound long-term memory deficits.
236
What is meant by a 'pure amnesic'?
A person with a dense deficit in long-term memory learning/recall but otherwise intact cognition (intelligence, perception, language).
237
What complementary case did Warrington and Chalice study?
A patient with intact long-term memory but severely impaired short-term memory (digit span only 1–2 items).
238
What is a double dissociation in neuropsychology?
When one patient group shows impairment in A but not B, and another group shows impairment in B but not A, demonstrating functional separation.
239
How did double dissociation support the distinction between STM and LTM?
It showed STM and LTM can be independently impaired, supporting their separation as distinct systems.
240
Why did double dissociation challenge the Atkinson & Shiffrin modal model?
Because the model assumed STM was necessary for LTM learning, but patients with poor STM still learned normally.
241
How did Baddeley and Hitch simulate memory impairments in student subjects?
By giving them a digit-span task to occupy STM while testing reasoning, learning, and comprehension tasks.
242
Why did Baddeley and Hitch give students digit-span tasks alongside cognitive tasks?
To experimentally test the role of working memory by 'loading' it during reasoning and learning.
243
What everyday example was used to illustrate the limits of working memory?
A man who stopped walking while texting because he could not text and walk at the same time.
244
What is working memory?
The part of our consciousness that stores immediate experiences, accesses relevant long-term memory, and processes information in light of current goals.
245
What types of goals does working memory help with?
Everyday goals such as getting food, unlocking a hotel room, or solving simple problems.
246
What is working memory capacity?
The ability to hold and manipulate information to achieve current goals.
247
What positive abilities are associated with high working memory capacity?
* Better storytelling
* Higher standardized test performance
* Strong writing skills
* Higher reasoning ability
248
What does the demonstration of holding five words while multitasking show?
That working memory has a limited capacity and is easily overloaded by simultaneous tasks.
249
Why is working memory important in everyday functioning?
It helps extract meaning from ongoing experiences, communicate, problem-solve, and follow conversations.
250
How is working memory essential in communication?
It allows us to build a narrative, track what has been said, and plan contributions to a conversation.
251
How is working memory used in problem solving?
It enables us to evaluate information, compare options, and generate solutions in real time.
252
What is the modern estimate of working memory capacity according to fMRI studies?
About 4 items (not 7 ± 2 as previously thought).
253
How long can information be held in working memory without rehearsal?
Around 10–20 seconds.
254
What everyday example illustrates the limits of working memory when changing contexts?
Walking into another room and forgetting why you went there.
255
What do distractions (like listening to a nearby conversation) show about working memory?
That attention in working memory is limited and can easily be diverted.
256
What strategies help us negotiate the limits of working memory?
* Processing information immediately
* Asking questions
* Applying it to life
* Practicing/repeating it
257
Why does visual imagery improve memory?
Because creating mental images makes information more meaningful and connected, aiding transfer into long-term memory.
258
Why are mnemonic strategies useful for working memory?
They make information more meaningful, reduce cognitive load, and increase recall.
259
Why is it important to control for working memory capacity in experiments?
Because individual differences in WM capacity can confound performance on memory and cognitive tasks.
260
What is the key difference between short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM)?
STM focuses only on temporary storage, while WM involves both storage and active processing/manipulation of information.
261
How is working memory different from short-term memory?
STM focuses on temporary storage, while WM involves both storage and manipulation of information, drawing from sensory and long-term memory.
262
What does it mean that working memory is 'bidirectional'?
It can draw on sensory input and long-term memory to process information in real time.
263
What is the conceptual relationship between short-term memory and working memory?
They are the same structural system, but STM highlights storage, while WM highlights manipulation.
264
Why does working memory also need to store information?
Because information must be held temporarily in order to be manipulated.
265
What is meant by photographic or eidetic memory?
An extremely vivid and detailed recall ability, sometimes described as 'not forgetting.'
266
Why might an extremely good memory not always be beneficial?
Because never forgetting can be overwhelming and maladaptive, rather than helpful.
PSY310 Learning & Cognition
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Chapter 1 Introduction191
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Introduction To Cognitive Psychology98
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Attention150
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JA - Driver (2001) Attention166
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Visual Perception206
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Short Term Memory266
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LTM: Structure281
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LTM: Encoding, Retrieval. & Consolidation162
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Language233
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Rendall (2021) Aping Language152
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Innate Behaviour And Non-associative Learning322
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Operant Conditioning230
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Classical Conditioning506
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Observational Learning0
