1
Q
What is long-term memory (LTM) responsible for?
A
Long-term memory is a system responsible for storing information for long periods of time, ranging from a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember. It acts as an archive of past events and learned knowledge.
2
Q
How does long-term memory differ from short-term memory in terms of time span?
A
Short-term memory/working memory retains information for about 30 seconds or less, while long-term memory spans from minutes ago to decades earlier, covering both recent and remote memories.
3
Q
How does long-term memory interact with working memory in everyday understanding?
A
Working memory holds current information (e.g., the wording of a sentence), while long-term memory supplies meaning and background knowledge (e.g., facts about James Bond, movies, or people mentioned). This interplay allows comprehension and interpretation of ongoing experiences.
4
Q
Why is long-term memory not just about storing information?
A
While LTM retains past information, it also supports dynamic processes by interacting with working memory. This enables us to interpret, understand language, solve problems, and make decisions in real time.
5
Q
What classic experiment studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
A
B.B. Murdoch Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring the serial position curve, which shows how recall varies depending on an item’s position in a list.
6
Q
What is long-term memory (LTM) responsible for?
A
Long-term memory is a system responsible for storing information for long periods of time, ranging from a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember. It acts as an archive of past events and learned knowledge.
7
Q
How does long-term memory differ from short-term memory in terms of time span?
A
Short-term memory/working memory retains information for about 30 seconds or less, while long-term memory spans from minutes ago to decades earlier, covering both recent and remote memories.
8
Q
How does long-term memory interact with working memory in everyday understanding?
A
Working memory holds current information (e.g., the wording of a sentence), while long-term memory supplies meaning and background knowledge (e.g., facts about James Bond, movies, or people mentioned). This interplay allows comprehension and interpretation of ongoing experiences.
9
Q
Why is long-term memory not just about storing information?
A
While LTM retains past information, it also supports dynamic processes by interacting with working memory. This enables us to interpret, understand language, solve problems, and make decisions in real time.
10
Q
What classic experiment studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
A
B.B. Murdoch Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring the serial position curve, which shows how recall varies depending on an item’s position in a list.
11
Q
What is a serial position curve and how is it created?
A
A serial position curve is created by presenting a list of words to participants one at a time. After the last word, participants recall as many words as they can in any order. The curve plots recall percentage versus the word’s position in the list.
12
Q
What does the serial position curve reveal about memory performance?
A
It shows that memory is better for words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list than for words in the middle.
13
Q
What is the primacy effect in memory recall?
A
The primacy effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the beginning of a list. It occurs because early words receive more rehearsal time, which allows transfer into long-term memory.
14
Q
How did Rundus (1971) test the explanation for the primacy effect?
A
Rundus presented lists of 20 words at 5-second intervals. In one condition, participants repeated words aloud during the intervals. Words rehearsed more often (earlier items) were recalled better, supporting the idea that rehearsal time underlies the primacy effect.
15
Q
What is the recency effect in memory recall?
A
The recency effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the end of a list. It occurs because the most recent items are still stored in short-term memory.
16
Q
How did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) test the recency effect?
A
They asked participants to recall words after counting backwards for 30 seconds immediately after the last word. The counting prevented rehearsal and eliminated the recency effect, showing it depends on items being stored in short-term memory.
17
Q
What is long-term memory (LTM) responsible for?
A
Long-term memory is a system responsible for storing information for long periods of time, ranging from a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember. It acts as an archive of past events and learned knowledge.
18
Q
How does long-term memory differ from short-term memory in terms of time span?
A
Short-term memory/working memory retains information for about 30 seconds or less, while long-term memory spans from minutes ago to decades earlier, covering both recent and remote memories.
19
Q
How does long-term memory interact with working memory in everyday understanding?
A
Working memory holds current information (e.g., the wording of a sentence), while long-term memory supplies meaning and background knowledge (e.g., facts about James Bond, movies, or people mentioned). This interplay allows comprehension and interpretation of ongoing experiences.
20
Q
Why is long-term memory not just about storing information?
A
While LTM retains past information, it also supports dynamic processes by interacting with working memory. This enables us to interpret, understand language, solve problems, and make decisions in real time.
21
Q
What classic experiment studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
A
B.B. Murdoch Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring the serial position curve, which shows how recall varies depending on an item’s position in a list.
22
Q
What is a serial position curve and how is it created?
A
A serial position curve is created by presenting a list of words to participants one at a time. After the last word, participants recall as many words as they can in any order. The curve plots recall percentage versus the word’s position in the list.
23
Q
What does the serial position curve reveal about memory performance?
A
It shows that memory is better for words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list than for words in the middle.
24
Q
What is the primacy effect in memory recall?
A
The primacy effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the beginning of a list. It occurs because early words receive more rehearsal time, which allows transfer into long-term memory.
25
How did Rundus (1971) test the explanation for the primacy effect?
Rundus presented lists of 20 words at 5-second intervals. In one condition, participants repeated words aloud during the intervals. Words rehearsed more often (earlier items) were recalled better, supporting the idea that rehearsal time underlies the primacy effect.
26
What is the recency effect in memory recall?
The recency effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the end of a list. It occurs because the most recent items are still stored in short-term memory.
27
How did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) test the recency effect?
They asked participants to recall words after counting backwards for 30 seconds immediately after the last word. The counting prevented rehearsal and eliminated the recency effect, showing it depends on items being stored in short-term memory.
28
What does 'coding' in memory refer to?
Coding refers to the form in which stimuli are represented in the mind. Examples include visual coding (images), auditory coding (sounds), and semantic coding (meaning).
29
What is the difference between the physiological and mental approaches to coding?
The physiological approach looks at how stimuli are represented by patterns of neural firing, while the mental approach asks how a stimulus or experience is represented in the mind (e.g., as images, sounds, or meanings).
30
What is visual coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, visual coding occurs when remembering visual patterns (e.g., recalling a shape briefly seen). In LTM, it occurs when visualizing people or places from the past (e.g., remembering a teacher's face).
31
What is auditory coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, auditory coding is shown by the phonological similarity effect (e.g., confusing letters that sound alike, like F and S). In LTM, it occurs when mentally 'playing' a song in your head.
32
What is semantic coding in short-term memory?
Semantic coding in STM involves representing items in terms of their meaning. Wickens et al. (1976) demonstrated this through proactive interference and release from proactive interference in a word recall experiment.
33
What is proactive interference in memory?
Proactive interference is the decrease in memory performance when previously learned information interferes with learning new information. For example, recalling successive lists of words from the same category (e.g., fruits).
34
What is 'release from proactive interference' and what does it indicate about coding?
Release from proactive interference occurs when the category of words changes (e.g., fruits to professions), leading to improved recall. This shows that semantic coding (meaning-based) operates in short-term memory.
35
What is long-term memory (LTM) responsible for?
Long-term memory is a system responsible for storing information for long periods of time, ranging from a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember. It acts as an archive of past events and learned knowledge.
36
How does long-term memory differ from short-term memory in terms of time span?
Short-term memory/working memory retains information for about 30 seconds or less, while long-term memory spans from minutes ago to decades earlier, covering both recent and remote memories.
37
How does long-term memory interact with working memory in everyday understanding?
Working memory holds current information (e.g., the wording of a sentence), while long-term memory supplies meaning and background knowledge (e.g., facts about James Bond, movies, or people mentioned). This interplay allows comprehension and interpretation of ongoing experiences.
38
Why is long-term memory not just about storing information?
While LTM retains past information, it also supports dynamic processes by interacting with working memory. This enables us to interpret, understand language, solve problems, and make decisions in real time.
39
What classic experiment studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
B.B. Murdoch Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring the serial position curve, which shows how recall varies depending on an item’s position in a list.
40
What is a serial position curve and how is it created?
A serial position curve is created by presenting a list of words to participants one at a time. After the last word, participants recall as many words as they can in any order. The curve plots recall percentage versus the word's position in the list.
41
What does the serial position curve reveal about memory performance?
It shows that memory is better for words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list than for words in the middle.
42
What is the primacy effect in memory recall?
The primacy effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the beginning of a list. It occurs because early words receive more rehearsal time, which allows transfer into long-term memory.
43
How did Rundus (1971) test the explanation for the primacy effect?
Rundus presented lists of 20 words at 5-second intervals. In one condition, participants repeated words aloud during the intervals. Words rehearsed more often (earlier items) were recalled better, supporting the idea that rehearsal time underlies the primacy effect.
44
What is the recency effect in memory recall?
The recency effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the end of a list. It occurs because the most recent items are still stored in short-term memory.
45
How did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) test the recency effect?
They asked participants to recall words after counting backwards for 30 seconds immediately after the last word. The counting prevented rehearsal and eliminated the recency effect, showing it depends on items being stored in short-term memory.
46
What does 'coding' in memory refer to?
Coding refers to the form in which stimuli are represented in the mind. Examples include visual coding (images), auditory coding (sounds), and semantic coding (meaning).
47
What is the difference between the physiological and mental approaches to coding?
The physiological approach looks at how stimuli are represented by patterns of neural firing, while the mental approach asks how a stimulus or experience is represented in the mind (e.g., as images, sounds, or meanings).
48
What is visual coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, visual coding occurs when remembering visual patterns (e.g., recalling a shape briefly seen). In LTM, it occurs when visualizing people or places from the past (e.g., remembering a teacher's face).
49
What is auditory coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, auditory coding is shown by the phonological similarity effect (e.g., confusing letters that sound alike, like F and S). In LTM, it occurs when mentally 'playing' a song in your head.
50
What is semantic coding in short-term memory?
Semantic coding in STM involves representing items in terms of their meaning. Wickens et al. (1976) demonstrated this through proactive interference and release from proactive interference in a word recall experiment.
51
What is proactive interference in memory?
Proactive interference is the decrease in memory performance when previously learned information interferes with learning new information. For example, recalling successive lists of words from the same category (e.g., fruits).
52
What is 'release from proactive interference' and what does it indicate about coding?
Release from proactive interference occurs when the category of words changes (e.g., fruits to professions), leading to improved recall. This shows that semantic coding (meaning-based) operates in short-term memory.
53
What is recognition memory and how is it measured?
Recognition memory is the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier. It is measured by presenting a stimulus during a study period, then later presenting the same stimulus along with new ones. Participants indicate whether each item was previously presented. It differs from recall, where participants must produce the remembered item without prompts.
54
How does recognition memory differ from recall?
Recall requires producing information without cues (e.g., fill-in-the-blank), while recognition involves identifying the correct item among alternatives (e.g., multiple-choice).
55
How did Sachs (1967) demonstrate semantic coding in long-term memory?
Sachs had participants listen to a passage and later tested recognition of sentences. Many participants remembered the general meaning of sentences but not the exact wording, often confusing altered versions with the original. This shows that LTM primarily stores meaning (semantic coding) rather than exact wording.
56
What did Sachs’ findings suggest about long-term memory?
They suggested that specific wording is often forgotten, but the general meaning can be remembered for a long time. This demonstrates that semantic coding is a key feature of long-term memory.
57
What type of coding is predominant in short-term memory and why?
Auditory coding is predominant in STM because many STM tasks, such as remembering a phone number, involve maintaining information by repeating it. Visual or semantic coding is less common in STM tasks.
58
What type of coding is predominant in long-term memory and why?
Semantic coding is predominant in LTM because we usually remember the meaning of experiences (e.g., story content) rather than exact words or images. Visual coding in LTM also occurs when recalling images or places.
59
Who was patient HM and what did his case demonstrate about memory?
Henry Molaison (HM) underwent hippocampal removal in 1953 to control epilepsy. The surgery eliminated his ability to form new long-term memories, though STM remained intact. His case demonstrated the role of the hippocampus in forming new LTMs and suggested STM and LTM rely on separate brain regions.
60
Who was patient KF and what did his case reveal about memory?
Patient KF suffered parietal lobe damage from a motorbike accident. His STM was severely impaired (digit span of 2, reduced recency effect), but his LTM was intact. This showed that STM and LTM can be dissociated.
61
What does the double dissociation between HM and KF demonstrate about memory systems?
HM had intact STM but impaired LTM formation, while KF had impaired STM but intact LTM. Together, they provide double dissociation evidence that STM and LTM are supported by different, independent mechanisms in the brain.
62
What did Ranganath and D'Esposito (2001) discover about the hippocampus and short-term memory?
They found that hippocampal activity increased when participants held novel faces in memory during a short delay, but not for familiar faces. This showed the hippocampus, usually linked to LTM, also plays a role in maintaining novel information in STM.
63
What do brain imaging studies suggest about the separation of STM and LTM?
Although neuropsychological evidence supports STM and LTM as separate systems, brain imaging shows overlap, especially for tasks involving novel stimuli. This suggests STM and LTM are not as strictly separated as once thought.
64
What is episodic memory and what is its defining property according to Tulving (1985)?
Episodic memory is memory for personal experiences. Its defining property is 'mental time travel'—the ability to re-experience past events, including emotions, details, and context. Tulving called this self-knowing or 'remembering.'
65
What is semantic memory and how does it differ from episodic memory?
Semantic memory is memory for facts and general knowledge, independent of personal experience. Unlike episodic memory, it does not involve mental time travel or reliving events.
66
Compare episodic and semantic memory.
Episodic memory is memory for personal experiences and involves mental time travel—reliving events with context and emotion. Semantic memory is memory for facts and general knowledge, without re-experiencing the event.
67
What type of consciousness is associated with episodic versus semantic memory?
Episodic memory involves autonoetic (self-knowing) consciousness, allowing mental time travel. Semantic memory involves noetic (knowing) consciousness, awareness of facts without reliving the experience.
68
Give an example of episodic versus semantic memory.
Episodic: Remembering your 10th birthday party, including emotions and details. Semantic: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France, without recalling when or where you learned it.
69
What kind of knowledge is stored in semantic memory?
Semantic memory stores knowledge about the world, such as facts, vocabulary, numbers, and concepts, without being tied to personal experiences. It is described as 'knowing' rather than 'remembering.'
70
Give an example of semantic memory that is not tied to a personal experience.
Knowing facts about the Pacific Ocean, such as its location, size, and that traveling west from San Francisco leads to Japan, even without recalling when these facts were learned.
71
Who was patient KC and what did his case reveal about memory?
KC suffered brain damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas in a motorcycle accident. He lost episodic memory and could not relive personal past events, but retained semantic memory, such as knowing his brother had died and recalling general facts.
72
Who was patient LP and what did her case reveal about memory?
LP, an Italian woman who suffered encephalitis, lost semantic memory (facts, word meanings, famous people, historical knowledge) but retained episodic memory, being able to recall personal events. Her case demonstrated a dissociation between semantic and episodic memory.
73
What does the double dissociation between KC and LP demonstrate about memory systems?
KC lost episodic but retained semantic memory, while LP lost semantic but retained episodic memory. Together, these cases demonstrate a double dissociation, supporting the idea that episodic and semantic memory involve different mechanisms.
74
What did Levine et al. (2004) show about episodic and semantic memory using brain imaging?
In an fMRI study, participants listened to diary entries they had recorded. Descriptions of personal events elicited detailed episodic autobiographical memories, while factual descriptions elicited semantic memory. This provided imaging evidence for distinct systems supporting episodic and semantic memory.
75
You remember attending your best friend’s wedding, including what you wore and how you felt. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it involves reliving a personal event with context and emotions.
76
You know that Paris is the capital of France. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Semantic memory, because it is a fact not tied to a personal experience.
77
You recall your first day at university, including the people you met and the classroom you were in. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it is a specific event from your personal past.
78
You know the rules of soccer, such as how many players are on a team. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Semantic memory, because it is knowledge of facts and rules, not tied to personal experience.
79
You can picture your family holiday at the beach last year, including the sights and sounds. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it involves mental time travel and reliving a personal experience.
80
What do brain imaging studies show about episodic and semantic memory overlap?
Brain imaging shows that while there is some overlap in activation between episodic and semantic memories, there are also major differences. This indicates they are distinct but interacting systems.
81
How does semantic memory influence episodic experience?
Semantic memory provides background knowledge that shapes what we pay attention to and how we interpret events. For example, knowing baseball rules allows anticipating plays, which influences the episodic memory of watching the game.
82
What is autobiographical memory and how does it involve episodic and semantic components?
Autobiographical memory refers to memories of specific life experiences that combine episodic details (events that happened at a particular time and place) and semantic details (facts related to the experience, such as locations or routines).
83
What are personal semantic memories?
Personal semantic memories are semantic facts associated with personal experiences, such as knowing your favorite table at a coffee shop or where you usually sit.
84
What are autobiographical significant semantic memories according to Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003)?
They are semantic memories that involve personal episodes, such as knowing a public figure and also having episodic experiences connected to them (e.g., attending their concert). These are recalled more easily than purely semantic knowledge.
85
What did Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003) find about memory for public figures?
They found that recall is better for names of public figures with high autobiographical significance (e.g., having personally experienced their concert or show) compared to figures known only through general semantic knowledge.
86
You know that your favorite table at the local café is usually hard to get in the mornings. What kind of memory is this?
Personal semantic memory, because it is a fact tied to your personal experience.
87
You vividly recall meeting a friend at the café yesterday and the conversation you had. What kind of memory is this?
Episodic memory, because it involves reliving a personal event with details and context.
88
You remember that Oprah Winfrey hosted a TV program, but cannot recall any specific episode you watched. What kind of memory is this?
Semantic memory, because it is factual knowledge without personal experience.
89
You remember attending an Oprah Winfrey show in person and what it was like in the studio audience. What kind of memory is this?
Episodic memory, because it involves a specific personal experience. It also contributes to autobiographical significant semantic memory.
90
You know the rules of baseball and can anticipate a double play while watching a game. How does this knowledge influence memory?
This is semantic memory influencing episodic experience, as background knowledge shapes what you pay attention to and how you remember the event.
91
What did Westmacott et al. (2003) find when testing people with episodic memory loss on autobiographically significant names?
They found no enhanced memory for autobiographically significant names in people without episodic memory. This shows that episodic memory enhances semantic memory for personally relevant facts, and without episodic memory this advantage disappears.
92
What typically happens to long-term memory as time passes?
Forgetting increases with longer time intervals, but forgetting is not all-or-nothing. Some information may be lost, while other details remain accessible depending on episodic or semantic content.
93
What is the difference between familiarity and recollection in memory?
Familiarity is the sense that something is known without recalling specific details (linked to semantic memory). Recollection involves remembering specific experiences with contextual details (linked to episodic memory).
94
Give an example of familiarity versus recollection when meeting someone new.
Familiarity: Recognizing a person as someone you’ve seen before but not recalling details. Recollection: Remembering meeting them at a coffee shop and the conversation you had about football.
95
What is the remember/know procedure and how is it used?
It is a method to distinguish between episodic and semantic memory. Participants indicate 'Remember' if they recall the stimulus with context (episodic), 'Know' if it seems familiar without details (semantic), or 'Don’t know' if they do not recognize it.
96
Why is the remember/know procedure important for studying memory?
It helps separate episodic components (detailed recollection) from semantic components (familiarity) when studying memory for both lab stimuli and real-life events.
97
You see someone in the supermarket and they look familiar, but you can’t remember where you’ve met them. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, because you recognize them without recalling specific details of the encounter.
98
You see someone in the supermarket and remember meeting them at a party last weekend, including what you talked about. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Recollection, because you recall specific contextual details of the prior encounter.
99
You recognize a song playing on the radio but can’t remember when you first heard it. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, because the song seems known without remembering a specific event tied to it.
100
You hear a song on the radio and remember singing it at your high school graduation party. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Recollection, because it includes remembering a specific event and context tied to the song.
101
You see a landmark while traveling and it feels familiar, but you can’t place when you saw it before. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, since you recognize it without recalling the circumstances of seeing it previously.
102
What is the key difference between familiarity and recollection in memory retrieval?
Familiarity provides a sense of knowing without contextual details (semantic memory), while recollection includes detailed context and awareness of reliving the past (episodic memory).
103
How do familiarity and recollection map onto episodic and semantic memory?
Familiarity is linked to semantic memory (knowing without context), while recollection is linked to episodic memory (remembering with contextual details).
104
Which memory test response corresponds to familiarity versus recollection in the remember/know procedure?
'Know' responses correspond to familiarity (semantic memory), while 'Remember' responses correspond to recollection (episodic memory).
105
Which experimental method is used to distinguish between familiarity and recollection?
The remember/know procedure, where participants indicate 'Remember' for recollection with context, 'Know' for familiarity without context, or 'Don't know' if they don't recognize the stimulus.
106
What did Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003) find about autobiographically significant names in healthy participants?
They found that names tied to autobiographical experiences were remembered better than names known only through general semantic knowledge.
107
What did Westmacott et al. (2003) discover about autobiographically significant names in patients with episodic memory loss?
Patients with episodic memory loss did not show enhanced memory for autobiographically significant names, indicating episodic memory enhances semantic recall when personally relevant.
108
How has the remember/know procedure been applied in memory research?
It has been used in both laboratory studies (e.g., word lists) and real-life memory studies to separate episodic recollection from semantic familiarity.
109
What is meant by the 'semanticization of remote memories'?
It refers to the process where episodic details fade over time, and memories are retained mainly as semantic facts. Older memories lose vivid personal details but the factual content remains.
110
What did Raluca Petrican and colleagues (2005–2007) discover about memory for public events over time?
They found that 'Remember' responses (episodic detail) decreased much more than 'Know' responses (semantic familiarity) for events 40–50 years earlier, showing semanticization of remote memories.
111
How soon can semanticization occur?
Even after as little as one week, episodic details may fade while semantic knowledge remains, unless the event was particularly important.
112
How are semantic memories originally formed according to the semanticization process?
Semantic knowledge is often first learned through episodic experiences, but the episodic context fades over time, leaving the semantic fact intact.
113
What evidence links episodic memory to imagining the future?
Patients with hippocampal damage (e.g., KC, DB) who cannot recall past episodic events also struggle to imagine personal future events, showing episodic memory supports future thinking.
114
Can patients with episodic memory loss still imagine future events not tied to themselves?
Yes, they can imagine general future events like politics, but not personal scenarios, highlighting episodic memory’s role in personal future imagination.
115
What did Addis et al. (2007) find when comparing brain activation for remembering the past vs. imagining the future?
Using fMRI, they found that the same brain regions were activated for both tasks, suggesting similar neural mechanisms underlie remembering past events and simulating future events.
116
What is the Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis (Schacter & Addis, 2007, 2009)?
It proposes that episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct possible future scenarios, highlighting the adaptive role of episodic memory in anticipating future needs.
117
What did McDermott et al. (2016) discover about perspective in remembered vs. imagined events?
Both were more likely seen from a third-person perspective; slightly fewer for remembered past (71%) than imagined future (78%), but overall showing overlap in processes.
118
Why is the ability to imagine the future considered adaptive?
It allows people to simulate scenarios, anticipate needs, plan responses, and guide behavior — supporting survival by deciding whether to approach or avoid situations.
119
How is mind-wandering related to future thinking?
Mind-wandering is associated with the default mode network (DMN), occurs about half the waking day, and often involves thinking about the future — suggesting it helps construct future simulations.
120
What happens when the default mode network (DMN) is damaged?
Damage to the DMN can impair retrieval of autobiographical memories and the ability to imagine future personal events, linking it to both past and future episodic processes.
121
What is procedural memory, and why is it called skill memory?
Procedural memory is implicit memory for doing things, usually involving learned skills. It’s called skill memory because it supports actions like playing an instrument, typing, or riding a bike.
122
How is procedural memory implicit?
Patients with amnesia (e.g., HM, LSJ, KC) can learn and improve at new skills, like mirror drawing or playing music, without recalling any practice — showing that skill learning occurs without conscious recollection.
123
What is the mirror drawing task, and what did HM’s performance reveal?
Mirror drawing requires tracing a figure while viewing only its reflection. HM improved with practice despite not remembering prior attempts, demonstrating the implicit nature of procedural memory.
124
How has procedural memory been used in amnesia rehabilitation?
Patients are trained in repetitive skills (e.g., sorting mail, computer tasks) that they can perform expertly despite not remembering the training sessions.
125
What are examples of cognitive procedural memories?
Language use — such as grammar rules in conversation — which are applied automatically without conscious awareness of the rules.
126
How does attention relate to procedural memory?
Early skill learning requires attention (e.g., piano practice), but with expertise, performance becomes automatic. Focusing too much on movements can impair expert performance.
127
What is expert-induced amnesia?
A phenomenon where experts cannot recall details of their skilled performance because the actions are carried out automatically. Example: Sidney Crosby forgetting details of his Olympic gold medal goal.
128
What does LSJ’s case reveal about the connection between procedural and semantic memory?
LSJ lost episodic and much of her semantic memory but retained procedural knowledge. She could still answer factual questions tied to skills (painting, music, piloting, driving). This shows semantic knowledge can be linked to procedural memory.
129
What is priming in memory research?
Priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (prime) changes how a person responds to another (test). It often speeds response times without conscious awareness.
130
What is repetition priming?
A type of priming where the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus (e.g., seeing 'bird' makes later recognition of 'bird' faster).
131
Why is priming considered an implicit memory process?
Priming effects occur even when participants have no conscious recollection of the priming stimulus, showing it operates outside explicit awareness.
132
How did Graf et al. (1985) study priming using patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome?
Participants rated words for liking, then took either an explicit recall test or a word-completion implicit test. Korsakoff patients performed poorly on recall but showed normal priming in word completion.
133
What groups were compared in Graf et al.’s (1985) priming study?
1. Patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome (amnesia), 2. Alcoholism patients without amnesia, 3. Non-alcoholic controls. Priming was intact in all groups, but only non-amnesic groups recalled words well.
134
What is long-term memory (LTM) responsible for?
Long-term memory is a system responsible for storing information for long periods of time, ranging from a few moments ago to as far back as we can remember. It acts as an archive of past events and learned knowledge.
135
How does long-term memory differ from short-term memory in terms of time span?
Short-term memory/working memory retains information for about 30 seconds or less, while long-term memory spans from minutes ago to decades earlier, covering both recent and remote memories.
136
How does long-term memory interact with working memory in everyday understanding?
Working memory holds current information (e.g., the wording of a sentence), while long-term memory supplies meaning and background knowledge (e.g., facts about James Bond, movies, or people mentioned). This interplay allows comprehension and interpretation of ongoing experiences.
137
Why is long-term memory not just about storing information?
While LTM retains past information, it also supports dynamic processes by interacting with working memory. This enables us to interpret, understand language, solve problems, and make decisions in real time.
138
What classic experiment studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memory?
B.B. Murdoch Jr. (1962) studied the distinction between STM and LTM by measuring the serial position curve, which shows how recall varies depending on an item’s position in a list.
139
What is a serial position curve and how is it created?
A serial position curve is created by presenting a list of words to participants one at a time. After the last word, participants recall as many words as they can in any order. The curve plots recall percentage versus the word's position in the list.
140
What does the serial position curve reveal about memory performance?
It shows that memory is better for words at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list than for words in the middle.
141
What is the primacy effect in memory recall?
The primacy effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the beginning of a list. It occurs because early words receive more rehearsal time, which allows transfer into long-term memory.
142
How did Rundus (1971) test the explanation for the primacy effect?
Rundus presented lists of 20 words at 5-second intervals. In one condition, participants repeated words aloud during the intervals. Words rehearsed more often (earlier items) were recalled better, supporting the idea that rehearsal time underlies the primacy effect.
143
What is the recency effect in memory recall?
The recency effect is the tendency to better recall words presented at the end of a list. It occurs because the most recent items are still stored in short-term memory.
144
How did Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) test the recency effect?
They asked participants to recall words after counting backwards for 30 seconds immediately after the last word. The counting prevented rehearsal and eliminated the recency effect, showing it depends on items being stored in short-term memory.
145
What does 'coding' in memory refer to?
Coding refers to the form in which stimuli are represented in the mind. Examples include visual coding (images), auditory coding (sounds), and semantic coding (meaning).
146
What is the difference between the physiological and mental approaches to coding?
The physiological approach looks at how stimuli are represented by patterns of neural firing, while the mental approach asks how a stimulus or experience is represented in the mind (e.g., as images, sounds, or meanings).
147
What is visual coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, visual coding occurs when remembering visual patterns (e.g., recalling a shape briefly seen). In LTM, it occurs when visualizing people or places from the past (e.g., remembering a teacher's face).
148
What is auditory coding in short-term and long-term memory?
In STM, auditory coding is shown by the phonological similarity effect (e.g., confusing letters that sound alike, like F and S). In LTM, it occurs when mentally 'playing' a song in your head.
149
What is semantic coding in short-term memory?
Semantic coding in STM involves representing items in terms of their meaning. Wickens et al. (1976) demonstrated this through proactive interference and release from proactive interference in a word recall experiment.
150
What is proactive interference in memory?
Proactive interference is the decrease in memory performance when previously learned information interferes with learning new information. For example, recalling successive lists of words from the same category (e.g., fruits).
151
What is 'release from proactive interference' and what does it indicate about coding?
Release from proactive interference occurs when the category of words changes (e.g., fruits to professions), leading to improved recall. This shows that semantic coding (meaning-based) operates in short-term memory.
152
What is recognition memory and how is it measured?
Recognition memory is the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier. It is measured by presenting a stimulus during a study period, then later presenting the same stimulus along with new ones. Participants indicate whether each item was previously presented. It differs from recall, where participants must produce the remembered item without prompts.
153
How does recognition memory differ from recall?
Recall requires producing information without cues (e.g., fill-in-the-blank), while recognition involves identifying the correct item among alternatives (e.g., multiple-choice).
154
How did Sachs (1967) demonstrate semantic coding in long-term memory?
Sachs had participants listen to a passage and later tested recognition of sentences. Many participants remembered the general meaning of sentences but not the exact wording, often confusing altered versions with the original. This shows that LTM primarily stores meaning (semantic coding) rather than exact wording.
155
What did Sachs’ findings suggest about long-term memory?
They suggested that specific wording is often forgotten, but the general meaning can be remembered for a long time. This demonstrates that semantic coding is a key feature of long-term memory.
156
What type of coding is predominant in short-term memory and why?
Auditory coding is predominant in STM because many STM tasks, such as remembering a phone number, involve maintaining information by repeating it. Visual or semantic coding is less common in STM tasks.
157
What type of coding is predominant in long-term memory and why?
Semantic coding is predominant in LTM because we usually remember the meaning of experiences (e.g., story content) rather than exact words or images. Visual coding in LTM also occurs when recalling images or places.
158
Who was patient HM and what did his case demonstrate about memory?
Henry Molaison (HM) underwent hippocampal removal in 1953 to control epilepsy. The surgery eliminated his ability to form new long-term memories, though STM remained intact. His case demonstrated the role of the hippocampus in forming new LTMs and suggested STM and LTM rely on separate brain regions.
159
Who was patient KF and what did his case reveal about memory?
Patient KF suffered parietal lobe damage from a motorbike accident. His STM was severely impaired (digit span of 2, reduced recency effect), but his LTM was intact. This showed that STM and LTM can be dissociated.
160
What does the double dissociation between HM and KF demonstrate about memory systems?
HM had intact STM but impaired LTM formation, while KF had impaired STM but intact LTM. Together, they provide double dissociation evidence that STM and LTM are supported by different, independent mechanisms in the brain.
161
What did Ranganath and D'Esposito (2001) discover about the hippocampus and short-term memory?
They found that hippocampal activity increased when participants held novel faces in memory during a short delay, but not for familiar faces. This showed the hippocampus, usually linked to LTM, also plays a role in maintaining novel information in STM.
162
What do brain imaging studies suggest about the separation of STM and LTM?
Although neuropsychological evidence supports STM and LTM as separate systems, brain imaging shows overlap, especially for tasks involving novel stimuli. This suggests STM and LTM are not as strictly separated as once thought.
163
What is episodic memory and what is its defining property according to Tulving (1985)?
Episodic memory is memory for personal experiences. Its defining property is 'mental time travel'—the ability to re-experience past events, including emotions, details, and context. Tulving called this self-knowing or 'remembering.'
164
What is semantic memory and how does it differ from episodic memory?
Semantic memory is memory for facts and general knowledge, independent of personal experience. Unlike episodic memory, it does not involve mental time travel or reliving events.
165
Compare episodic and semantic memory.
Episodic memory is memory for personal experiences and involves mental time travel—reliving events with context and emotion. Semantic memory is memory for facts and general knowledge, without re-experiencing the event.
166
What type of consciousness is associated with episodic versus semantic memory?
Episodic memory involves autonoetic (self-knowing) consciousness, allowing mental time travel. Semantic memory involves noetic (knowing) consciousness, awareness of facts without reliving the experience.
167
Give an example of episodic versus semantic memory.
Episodic: Remembering your 10th birthday party, including emotions and details. Semantic: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France, without recalling when or where you learned it.
168
What kind of knowledge is stored in semantic memory?
Semantic memory stores knowledge about the world, such as facts, vocabulary, numbers, and concepts, without being tied to personal experiences. It is described as 'knowing' rather than 'remembering.'
169
Give an example of semantic memory that is not tied to a personal experience.
Knowing facts about the Pacific Ocean, such as its location, size, and that traveling west from San Francisco leads to Japan, even without recalling when these facts were learned.
170
Who was patient KC and what did his case reveal about memory?
KC suffered brain damage to the hippocampus and surrounding areas in a motorcycle accident. He lost episodic memory and could not relive personal past events, but retained semantic memory, such as knowing his brother had died and recalling general facts.
171
Who was patient LP and what did her case reveal about memory?
LP, an Italian woman who suffered encephalitis, lost semantic memory (facts, word meanings, famous people, historical knowledge) but retained episodic memory, being able to recall personal events. Her case demonstrated a dissociation between semantic and episodic memory.
172
What does the double dissociation between KC and LP demonstrate about memory systems?
KC lost episodic but retained semantic memory, while LP lost semantic but retained episodic memory. Together, these cases demonstrate a double dissociation, supporting the idea that episodic and semantic memory involve different mechanisms.
173
What did Levine et al. (2004) show about episodic and semantic memory using brain imaging?
In an fMRI study, participants listened to diary entries they had recorded. Descriptions of personal events elicited detailed episodic autobiographical memories, while factual descriptions elicited semantic memory. This provided imaging evidence for distinct systems supporting episodic and semantic memory.
174
You remember attending your best friend’s wedding, including what you wore and how you felt. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it involves reliving a personal event with context and emotions.
175
You know that Paris is the capital of France. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Semantic memory, because it is a fact not tied to a personal experience.
176
You recall your first day at university, including the people you met and the classroom you were in. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it is a specific event from your personal past.
177
You know the rules of soccer, such as how many players are on a team. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Semantic memory, because it is knowledge of facts and rules, not tied to personal experience.
178
You can picture your family holiday at the beach last year, including the sights and sounds. Is this episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory, because it involves mental time travel and reliving a personal experience.
179
What do brain imaging studies show about episodic and semantic memory overlap?
Brain imaging shows that while there is some overlap in activation between episodic and semantic memories, there are also major differences. This indicates they are distinct but interacting systems.
180
How does semantic memory influence episodic experience?
Semantic memory provides background knowledge that shapes what we pay attention to and how we interpret events. For example, knowing baseball rules allows anticipating plays, which influences the episodic memory of watching the game.
181
What is autobiographical memory and how does it involve episodic and semantic components?
Autobiographical memory refers to memories of specific life experiences that combine episodic details (events that happened at a particular time and place) and semantic details (facts related to the experience, such as locations or routines).
182
What are personal semantic memories?
Personal semantic memories are semantic facts associated with personal experiences, such as knowing your favorite table at a coffee shop or where you usually sit.
183
What are autobiographical significant semantic memories according to Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003)?
They are semantic memories that involve personal episodes, such as knowing a public figure and also having episodic experiences connected to them (e.g., attending their concert). These are recalled more easily than purely semantic knowledge.
184
What did Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003) find about memory for public figures?
They found that recall is better for names of public figures with high autobiographical significance (e.g., having personally experienced their concert or show) compared to figures known only through general semantic knowledge.
185
You know that your favorite table at the local café is usually hard to get in the mornings. What kind of memory is this?
Personal semantic memory, because it is a fact tied to your personal experience.
186
You vividly recall meeting a friend at the café yesterday and the conversation you had. What kind of memory is this?
Episodic memory, because it involves reliving a personal event with details and context.
187
You remember that Oprah Winfrey hosted a TV program, but cannot recall any specific episode you watched. What kind of memory is this?
Semantic memory, because it is factual knowledge without personal experience.
188
You remember attending an Oprah Winfrey show in person and what it was like in the studio audience. What kind of memory is this?
Episodic memory, because it involves a specific personal experience. It also contributes to autobiographical significant semantic memory.
189
You know the rules of baseball and can anticipate a double play while watching a game. How does this knowledge influence memory?
This is semantic memory influencing episodic experience, as background knowledge shapes what you pay attention to and how you remember the event.
190
What did Westmacott et al. (2003) find when testing people with episodic memory loss on autobiographically significant names?
They found no enhanced memory for autobiographically significant names in people without episodic memory. This shows that episodic memory enhances semantic memory for personally relevant facts, and without episodic memory this advantage disappears.
191
What typically happens to long-term memory as time passes?
Forgetting increases with longer time intervals, but forgetting is not all-or-nothing. Some information may be lost, while other details remain accessible depending on episodic or semantic content.
192
What is the difference between familiarity and recollection in memory?
Familiarity is the sense that something is known without recalling specific details (linked to semantic memory). Recollection involves remembering specific experiences with contextual details (linked to episodic memory).
193
Give an example of familiarity versus recollection when meeting someone new.
Familiarity: Recognizing a person as someone you’ve seen before but not recalling details. Recollection: Remembering meeting them at a coffee shop and the conversation you had about football.
194
What is the remember/know procedure and how is it used?
It is a method to distinguish between recognition memory based on familiarity (know) and recollection (remember).
195
What is the remember/know procedure and how is it used?
It is a method to distinguish between episodic and semantic memory. Participants indicate 'Remember' if they recall the stimulus with context (episodic), 'Know' if it seems familiar without details (semantic), or 'Don’t know' if they do not recognize it.
196
Why is the remember/know procedure important for studying memory?
It helps separate episodic components (detailed recollection) from semantic components (familiarity) when studying memory for both lab stimuli and real-life events.
197
You see someone in the supermarket and they look familiar, but you can’t remember where you’ve met them. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, because you recognize them without recalling specific details of the encounter.
198
You see someone in the supermarket and remember meeting them at a party last weekend, including what you talked about. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Recollection, because you recall specific contextual details of the prior encounter.
199
You recognize a song playing on the radio but can’t remember when you first heard it. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, because the song seems known without remembering a specific event tied to it.
200
You hear a song on the radio and remember singing it at your high school graduation party. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Recollection, because it includes remembering a specific event and context tied to the song.
201
You see a landmark while traveling and it feels familiar, but you can’t place when you saw it before. Is this familiarity or recollection?
Familiarity, since you recognize it without recalling the circumstances of seeing it previously.
202
What is the key difference between familiarity and recollection in memory retrieval?
Familiarity provides a sense of knowing without contextual details (semantic memory), while recollection includes detailed context and awareness of reliving the past (episodic memory).
203
How do familiarity and recollection map onto episodic and semantic memory?
Familiarity is linked to semantic memory (knowing without context), while recollection is linked to episodic memory (remembering with contextual details).
204
Which memory test response corresponds to familiarity versus recollection in the remember/know procedure?
'Know' responses correspond to familiarity (semantic memory), while 'Remember' responses correspond to recollection (episodic memory).
205
Which experimental method is used to distinguish between familiarity and recollection?
The remember/know procedure, where participants indicate 'Remember' for recollection with context, 'Know' for familiarity without context, or 'Don't know' if they don't recognize the stimulus.
206
What did Westmacott and Moscovitch (2003) find about autobiographically significant names in healthy participants?
They found that names tied to autobiographical experiences were remembered better than names known only through general semantic knowledge.
207
What did Westmacott et al. (2003) discover about autobiographically significant names in patients with episodic memory loss?
Patients with episodic memory loss did not show enhanced memory for autobiographically significant names, indicating episodic memory enhances semantic recall when personally relevant.
208
How has the remember/know procedure been applied in memory research?
It has been used in both laboratory studies (e.g., word lists) and real-life memory studies to separate episodic recollection from semantic familiarity.
209
What is meant by the 'semanticization of remote memories'?
It refers to the process where episodic details fade over time, and memories are retained mainly as semantic facts. Older memories lose vivid personal details but the factual content remains.
210
What did Raluca Petrican and colleagues (2005–2007) discover about memory for public events over time?
They found that 'Remember' responses (episodic detail) decreased much more than 'Know' responses (semantic familiarity) for events 40–50 years earlier, showing semanticization of remote memories.
211
How soon can semanticization occur?
Even after as little as one week, episodic details may fade while semantic knowledge remains, unless the event was particularly important.
212
How are semantic memories originally formed according to the semanticization process?
Semantic knowledge is often first learned through episodic experiences, but the episodic context fades over time, leaving the semantic fact intact.
213
What evidence links episodic memory to imagining the future?
Patients with hippocampal damage (e.g., KC, DB) who cannot recall past episodic events also struggle to imagine personal future events, showing episodic memory supports future thinking.
214
Can patients with episodic memory loss still imagine future events not tied to themselves?
Yes, they can imagine general future events like politics, but not personal scenarios, highlighting episodic memory’s role in personal future imagination.
215
What did Addis et al. (2007) find when comparing brain activation for remembering the past vs. imagining the future?
Using fMRI, they found that the same brain regions were activated for both tasks, suggesting similar neural mechanisms underlie remembering past events and simulating future events.
216
What is the Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis (Schacter & Addis, 2007, 2009)?
It proposes that episodic memories are extracted and recombined to construct possible future scenarios, highlighting the adaptive role of episodic memory in anticipating future needs.
217
What did McDermott et al. (2016) discover about perspective in remembered vs. imagined events?
Both were more likely seen from a third-person perspective; slightly fewer for remembered past (71%) than imagined future (78%), but overall showing overlap in processes.
218
Why is the ability to imagine the future considered adaptive?
It allows people to simulate scenarios, anticipate needs, plan responses, and guide behavior — supporting survival by deciding whether to approach or avoid situations.
219
How is mind-wandering related to future thinking?
Mind-wandering is associated with the default mode network (DMN), occurs about half the waking day, and often involves thinking about the future — suggesting it helps construct future simulations.
220
What happens when the default mode network (DMN) is damaged?
Damage to the DMN can impair retrieval of autobiographical memories and the ability to imagine future personal events, linking it to both past and future episodic processes.
221
What is procedural memory, and why is it called skill memory?
Procedural memory is implicit memory for doing things, usually involving learned skills. It’s called skill memory because it supports actions like playing an instrument, typing, or riding a bike.
222
How is procedural memory implicit?
Patients with amnesia (e.g., HM, LSJ, KC) can learn and improve at new skills, like mirror drawing or playing music, without recalling any practice — showing that skill learning occurs without conscious recollection.
223
What is the mirror drawing task, and what did HM’s performance reveal?
Mirror drawing requires tracing a figure while viewing only its reflection. HM improved with practice despite not remembering prior attempts, demonstrating the implicit nature of procedural memory.
224
How has procedural memory been used in amnesia rehabilitation?
Patients are trained in repetitive skills (e.g., sorting mail, computer tasks) that they can perform expertly despite not remembering the training sessions.
225
What are examples of cognitive procedural memories?
Language use — such as grammar rules in conversation — which are applied automatically without conscious awareness of the rules.
226
How does attention relate to procedural memory?
Early skill learning requires attention (e.g., piano practice), but with expertise, performance becomes automatic. Focusing too much on movements can impair expert performance.
227
What is expert-induced amnesia?
A phenomenon where experts cannot recall details of their skilled performance because the actions are carried out automatically. Example: Sidney Crosby forgetting details of his Olympic gold medal goal.
228
What does LSJ’s case reveal about the connection between procedural and semantic memory?
LSJ lost episodic and much of her semantic memory but retained procedural knowledge. She could still answer factual questions tied to skills (painting, music, piloting, driving). This shows semantic knowledge can be linked to procedural memory.
229
What is priming in memory research?
Priming occurs when the presentation of one stimulus (prime) changes how a person responds to another (test). It often speeds response times without conscious awareness.
230
What is repetition priming?
A type of priming where the test stimulus is the same as or resembles the priming stimulus (e.g., seeing 'bird' makes later recognition of 'bird' faster).
231
Why is priming considered an implicit memory process?
Priming effects occur even when participants have no conscious recollection of the priming stimulus, showing it operates outside explicit awareness.
232
How did Graf et al. (1985) study priming using patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome?
Participants rated words for liking, then took either an explicit recall test or a word-completion implicit test. Korsakoff patients performed poorly on recall but showed normal priming in word completion.
233
What groups were compared in Graf et al.’s (1985) priming study?
1. Patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome (amnesia), 2. Alcoholism patients without amnesia, 3. Non-alcoholic controls. Priming was intact in all groups, but only non-amnesic groups recalled words well.
234
What did Graf et al. (1985) find when comparing recall and word completion in patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome versus controls?
Patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome showed poor recall (explicit memory) compared to controls, but performed just as well as controls on the word completion task (implicit memory), demonstrating intact repetition priming despite amnesia.
235
Why did Graf et al. (1985) conclude that priming is implicit memory?
Because patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome showed priming effects (word completion performance) even though they had poor explicit recall, indicating that priming does not require conscious remembering.
236
How do researchers minimize explicit remembering in priming experiments?
By disguising the priming task (e.g., rating words for pleasantness, or judging animal size) and using testing procedures that don’t reference memory (e.g., word completion, speeded response tasks). These methods reduce the chance of conscious recollection.
237
What role does speed play in distinguishing priming from explicit memory?
Rapid-response tasks reduce the time available for conscious recollection, ensuring that performance improvements are due to implicit priming rather than explicit memory.
238
What is an everyday example of repetition priming influencing behaviour without awareness?
Exposure to advertisements: even if people believe they are unaffected, repeated exposure to brand names or slogans can influence later choices due to implicit priming.
239
What did Perfect & Askew (1994) find when participants scanned magazines with advertisements?
Participants rated previously seen advertisements as more appealing, eye-catching, distinctive, and memorable compared to new ones, even though they could only explicitly recognize about 2.8 of the 25 original ads. This shows an implicit memory effect.
240
What is the propaganda effect in memory research?
The tendency for people to rate previously encountered statements as more believable or true simply because of prior exposure, even if told the statements were false at the time of first presentation.
Is an example of priming
241
Why is the propaganda effect considered an example of implicit memory?
Because it operates without conscious awareness of prior exposure—people show changed judgments even when they do not remember seeing or hearing the statements before.
242
How are the propaganda effect, advertising, and the illusory truth effect related to implicit memory?
All three demonstrate how prior exposure shapes judgments without conscious awareness. Advertising (Perfect & Askew, 1994) showed higher ratings for previously seen ads, the propaganda effect shows repeated statements are judged as more true, and the illusory truth effect (Chapter 8) extends this by showing repeated exposure increases perceived validity even for false information.
243
What is classical conditioning in the context of memory?
A form of implicit memory that occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus, leading the neutral stimulus to elicit a response after repeated pairings (e.g., tone + air puff leading to blinking).
244
Why is classical conditioning considered implicit memory?
Because conditioned responses can occur even if a person has no conscious recollection of the pairing between stimuli, such as reacting emotionally to a person who 'feels familiar' without knowing why.
245
How can classical conditioning produce emotional responses in everyday life?
For example, experiencing anxiety when seeing flashing police lights in a location previously associated with receiving a speeding ticket. Emotional responses can be triggered by conditioned stimuli.
246
What real-life case inspired the movie *The Vow* (2012), and how does it illustrate memory loss?
It was based on Kim and Cricket Carpenter, whose car crash led to Cricket losing memory of her romance with Kim. It depicts fact-based memory loss, accurately showing loss of episodic memory due to head injury.
247
How is memory loss portrayed in *The Bourne Identity* different from real amnesia?
Jason Bourne loses episodic memories of his past and personal identity but retains semantic and procedural memory. This resembles psychogenic fugue, a rare condition involving memory loss of personal identity while retaining other memory systems.
248
What is psychogenic fugue, and how does it relate to fictional portrayals of memory loss?
A rare condition where a person loses memory for personal identity and past experiences, often travels away, and sometimes takes on a new identity. It is similar to Jason Bourne’s situation in *The Bourne Identity*.
249
How does Jason Bourne’s memory loss in *The Bourne Identity* relate to real cases?
Patients such as HM, KC, and LSJ lost episodic memory but retained procedural memory
## Footnote
HM could learn mirror drawing, KC learned new skills like sorting library books, and LSJ could still play the violin.
250
What type of memory did Jason Bourne retain despite his amnesia?
Procedural memory
## Footnote
This is evident as Bourne could still perform skills related to his training.
251
What is a key feature of the dissociation observed in Bourne’s memory?
The dissociation between episodic and procedural memory
## Footnote
This is similar to the experiences of patients like HM, KC, and LSJ.
252
What rare condition is reflected in Bourne’s case?
Psychogenic fugue
## Footnote
This condition involves sudden and extensive memory loss, often linked to trauma.
253
What memory loss did HM experience?
Episodic memory loss
## Footnote
HM could still learn new skills, demonstrating intact procedural memory.
254
What skill could KC still learn after his memory loss?
Sorting library books
## Footnote
This showcases his ability to acquire new procedural skills despite episodic memory loss.
255
True or False: Jason Bourne's case illustrates a complete loss of all types of memory.
False
## Footnote
Bourne retained procedural memory despite his episodic memory loss.
256
Fill in the blank: Patients like HM, KC, and LSJ demonstrate the retention of _______ memory despite episodic memory loss.
procedural
## Footnote
Their ability to perform learned tasks indicates intact procedural memory.
257
What can be inferred about the relationship between training and memory types in Bourne's situation?
Training skills remained intact despite memory loss
## Footnote
This highlights the separation between types of memory.
258
What memory disorder is Lenny’s condition in *Memento* most similar to?
Lenny’s condition resembles anterograde amnesia, as seen in H.M. He can remember events for a short period but cannot form new long-term memories. The movie incorrectly calls this 'short-term memory loss,' but cognitive psychology defines short-term memory as lasting 15–30 seconds. Lenny’s short-term memory is intact, but long-term memory formation is impaired.
259
[Connector] How does Lenny in *Memento* compare to H.M.’s real case?
Both show severe anterograde amnesia: intact short-term memory but inability to form new long-term memories. Like H.M., Lenny cannot retain new experiences beyond a few minutes. The movie exaggerates his functional abilities but gets the core disorder correct.
260
What memory disorder does Dory from *Finding Nemo* and *Finding Dory* represent?
Dory’s condition mimics anterograde amnesia like H.M., with inability to form new long-term memories. She can retain information for about 20–30 seconds but then forgets. The film inaccurately calls this 'short-term memory loss,' reinforcing a common misconception.
261
What fictional technology drives the plot of *Total Recall*?
In *Total Recall*, memories can be artificially implanted. Douglas Quaid has a false memory of a Mars vacation, which triggers confusion and paranoia. While real patients sometimes have false or distorted memories, full implantation of new, detailed autobiographical memories is fictional.
262
What real process does *Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind* exaggerate?
The movie imagines selective memory erasure of relationships. Real memory research shows that traumatic events can sometimes be forgotten (repression or amnesia), but also often become more salient. There is no known procedure to precisely delete chosen memories.
263
What makes *50 First Dates* fictional in terms of memory science?
Lucy can form memories normally during the day but 'resets' each night, forgetting everything by morning. This daily resetting of memory has no neurological basis. Real amnesia does not follow a strict 24-hour reset pattern.
264
What type of coding is predominant in long-term memory?
The principal coding system is semantic but auditory and visual coding also used
265
Draw a graph to indicate whether LTM is or is not a unitary system ?
It is not a unitary system.
266
What is procedural memory often called?
Skill memory – memory for actions and how to do things.
267
Does procedural memory include memory of where or when a skill was learned?
No – procedural memory does not include where or when it was learned.
268
Are we consciously aware of how we perform skills stored in procedural memory?
No – procedural memory operates without conscious awareness.
269
What types of skills are included in procedural memory?
Sensorimotor skills (movement and muscle action)
270
How does procedural memory interact with amnesia?
People with amnesia often retain procedural memory and can still learn or perform new skills even without explicit memory of learning them.
271
Which brain structure is episodic memory most strongly associated with?
The hippocampus.
272
Which brain regions are associated with autobiographical memory?
Hippocampus
273
Which brain structure is semantic memory most strongly associated with?
Inferotemporal cortex
274
Which brain structure is procedural memory most strongly associated with?
The striatum (striate nucleus).
275
What structures make up the striatum?
The caudate and the putamen.
276
Which brain regions provide input to the striatum?
The cerebral cortex and the substantia nigra.
277
Which structures receive output from the striatum?
The globus pallidus (which then projects to the thalamus and frontal cortex).
278
Which brain regions are associated with repetition priming?
The temporoparietal junction and the inferior frontal lobe.
279
Which brain structure is most strongly associated with simple classical conditioning responses such as the eye blink?
The cerebellum.
280
Q: What is expert-induced amnesia
and why does it occur?
281
A: Expert-induced amnesia occurs when experts are unable to describe in detail how a task is done
even though they can perform it automatically. This happens because control of the task has shifted from conscious
PSY310 Learning & Cognition
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Chapter 1 Introduction191
-
Introduction To Cognitive Psychology98
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Attention150
-
JA - Driver (2001) Attention166
-
Visual Perception206
-
Short Term Memory266
-
LTM: Structure281
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LTM: Encoding, Retrieval. & Consolidation162
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Language233
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Rendall (2021) Aping Language152
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Innate Behaviour And Non-associative Learning322
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Operant Conditioning230
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Classical Conditioning506
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Observational Learning0
