1
Q
What is language, according to the textbook definition?
A
A system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.
[Language Basics]
2
Q
Why does the basic definition of language also apply to animals, and why is it insufficient for humans?
A
Because some animals (cats, monkeys, bees) use sounds or gestures to communicate, but their systems are rigid and limited, unlike human language which is flexible and creative.
[Language Basics]
3
Q
What property makes human language unique compared to animal communication?
A
Creativity — the ability to produce and understand new and unique sentences that have never been spoken before.
[Language Properties]
4
Q
What does the hierarchical nature of language mean?
A
Language is built from small components (words) that can combine into larger units (phrases, sentences, stories).
[Language Structure]
5
Q
What does the rule-based nature of language mean?
A
Language follows specific rules that determine how components can be arranged, allowing some sentences but not others (e.g., “What is my cat saying?” is valid, but “Cat my saying is what” is not).
[Language Structure]
6
Q
What two properties allow humans to communicate beyond the fixed calls of animals?
A
The hierarchical structure of language and its rule-based system.
[Language Properties]
7
Q
Why is the need to communicate with language described as ‘universal’?
A
Because all human cultures develop language, and people invent language if none is available (e.g., deaf children creating sign language).
[Language Universality]
8
Q
How is language universal across cultures?
A
Every culture has language (over 5,000 exist), and even isolated groups like New Guinea tribes developed hundreds of unique languages.
[Language Universality]
9
Q
How is language development similar across cultures?
A
Children babble around 7 months, say meaningful words by age 1, and form multi-word utterances by age 2, regardless of culture.
[Language Development]
10
Q
In what way are languages ‘unique but the same’?
A
They differ in words, sounds, and rules, but all include nouns, verbs, ways to make negatives, ask questions, and refer to time.
[Language Universality]
11
Q
Which ancient philosophers are noted for early thinking about language?
A
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, around 350–450 BCE.
History of Language Study
12
Q
Who proposed that Broca’s area is responsible for language production, and when?
A
Paul Broca, in 1861, based on studies of brain-damaged patients.
History of Language Study
13
Q
Who proposed that Wernicke’s area is responsible for language comprehension, and when?
A
Karl Wernicke, in 1874.
History of Language Study
14
Q
What did B.F. Skinner propose in his 1957 book Verbal Behaviour about language learning?
A
That language is learned through reinforcement — children are rewarded for correct language and not rewarded (or punished) for incorrect language.
Behaviourist View
15
Q
What did Noam Chomsky propose in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures about language?
A
That humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language, similar to being programmed to walk.
Chomsky’s Theory
16
Q
Why did Chomsky argue against Skinner’s behaviourist explanation of language?
A
Because children produce novel sentences they’ve never heard or been reinforced for, showing language cannot be explained by reinforcement alone.
Chomsky’s Theory
17
Q
What was the significance of Chomsky’s critique of behaviourism for psychology?
A
It helped spark the cognitive revolution and shifted focus toward studying the mind, leading to the field of psycholinguistics.
Cognitive Revolution
18
Q
What is psycholinguistics?
A
The field concerned with the psychological study of language — how humans acquire and process language.
Psycholinguistics
19
Q
What are the four main concerns of psycholinguistics?
A
(1) Comprehension, (2) Representation, (3) Speech Production, (4) Acquisition.
Psycholinguistics
20
Q
In psycholinguistics, what does comprehension involve?
A
How people understand spoken and written language, including processing sounds, words, sentences, stories, and conversations.
Psycholinguistics – Comprehension
21
Q
In psycholinguistics, what does representation involve?
A
How language is represented in the mind, including grouping words into phrases and connecting parts of a story.
Psycholinguistics – Representation
22
Q
In psycholinguistics, what does speech production involve?
A
The physical and mental processes of creating speech.
Psycholinguistics – Speech Production
23
Q
In psycholinguistics, what does acquisition involve?
A
How people learn language, both as children and when learning additional languages later in life.
Psycholinguistics – Acquisition
24
Q
Which two areas of psycholinguistics are the main focus of this chapter?
A
Comprehension and representation.
Psycholinguistics
25
What is the lexicon?
The collection of all the words we know, also called our mental dictionary.
## Footnote
Lexicon
26
What is semantics in language?
The meaning of language.
## Footnote
Lexical Semantics
27
What is lexical semantics?
The study of the meaning of words.
## Footnote
Lexical Semantics
28
Why is determining the meaning of a word more complex than a simple 'look-up'?
Because multiple factors influence word perception and understanding beyond retrieving from memory.
## Footnote
Lexical Semantics
29
What is word frequency?
How often a word occurs in a given language (e.g., 'home' 547 times per million vs. 'hike' 4 times per million).
## Footnote
Word Frequency
30
What is the word frequency effect?
People respond more rapidly to high-frequency words (e.g., 'home') than to low-frequency words (e.g., 'hike').
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
31
Why is the word frequency effect important?
Because a word’s frequency influences how quickly and easily we process its meaning.
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
32
What is a lexical decision task?
A task where participants quickly decide whether a string of letters is a real word or a non-word.
## Footnote
Lexical Decision Task
33
How do high-frequency and low-frequency words differ in lexical decision tasks?
Responses are slower for low-frequency words than for high-frequency words.
## Footnote
Lexical Decision Task
34
How did Rayner & Duffy (1986) study word frequency effects during reading?
By measuring eye movements and fixation durations while participants read sentences with high- or low-frequency target words.
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
35
What did Rayner & Duffy (1986) find about fixations on low-frequency words?
First fixations lasted ~37 ms longer, and total gaze durations were ~87 ms longer than for high-frequency words.
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
36
What explains longer fixations on low-frequency words?
Readers need more time to assess the meaning of low-frequency words.
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
37
What does the word frequency effect demonstrate overall?
That our past experience with words influences how quickly we can access their meanings.
## Footnote
Word Frequency Effect
38
Why does variability in pronunciation make understanding words challenging?
People speak with different accents, speeds, and casual pronunciations, meaning the same word can sound very different in natural speech.
## Footnote
Word Recognition
39
How many different ways have been identified to pronounce the word 'the'?
About 50.
## Footnote
Word Recognition
40
How does context help us understand spoken words?
Words are easier to identify in sentences than when presented in isolation, because surrounding words provide contextual cues.
## Footnote
Context in Word Recognition
41
What did Pollack & Pickett (1964) demonstrate about words and context?
Participants could identify only about half of isolated words from their own conversations, but easily understood them in context.
## Footnote
Context in Word Recognition
42
Why is speech perception remarkable compared to reading text?
Unlike written words separated by spaces, spoken words often have no pauses between them, yet we still perceive distinct words.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
43
What did Saffran et al. (2008) show about infants and speech segmentation?
Infants are sensitive to statistical regularities in speech, helping them distinguish words in continuous speech.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
44
What are statistical regularities in speech?
Predictable patterns of which sounds are likely to occur together within a word versus across different words.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
45
Give an example of statistical regularities in English.
'Pre' and 'tty' are likely to occur within the word 'pretty,' but 'tty' and 'ba' are likely to be across two words in 'pretty baby.'
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
46
How does knowledge of word meaning aid speech segmentation?
Familiar words stand out in speech streams, even in foreign languages, while meaning helps us group sounds into the correct words.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
47
Give an example where meaning determines how identical sounds are grouped into words.
'Big girl' vs. 'Big Earl' — identical sounds are interpreted differently based on sentence meaning.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
48
What classic children’s rhyme illustrates how meaning shapes sound grouping?
'Ice cream' vs. 'I scream' — same sounds, different interpretation depending on context.
## Footnote
Speech Segmentation
49
What four factors affect our ability to understand spoken words?
(1) Word frequency, (2) Context, (3) Statistical regularities, (4) Knowledge of word meaning.
## Footnote
Word Recognition
50
What broader theme do these factors illustrate?
That understanding language depends heavily on knowledge gained from learning and experience.
## Footnote
Language Knowledge
51
What is lexical ambiguity?
When a word has more than one meaning (e.g., “bug” can mean insect, hidden device, or to annoy someone).
## Footnote
Lexical Ambiguity
52
How is lexical ambiguity usually resolved in everyday language?
By using sentence context to quickly determine the intended meaning.
## Footnote
Lexical Ambiguity
53
What did Tannenhaus et al. (1979) show about accessing multiple meanings of ambiguous words?
People briefly access all meanings of an ambiguous word before sentence context resolves which one applies.
## Footnote
Lexical Ambiguity
54
What is lexical priming?
When exposure to a word facilitates faster response to another word with a related meaning.
## Footnote
Lexical Priming
55
Give an example of lexical priming.
“Rose” followed by “flower” leads to faster recognition of “flower” because their meanings are related.
## Footnote
Lexical Priming
56
What does the presence of a lexical priming effect indicate?
That two words share a related meaning in a person’s mind.
## Footnote
Lexical Priming
57
What was the noun-noun condition in Tannenhaus’s experiment?
“Rose” used as a noun (She held a rose) was followed by the probe word “flower.”
## Footnote
Lexical Priming – Experiment
58
What was the verb-noun condition in Tannenhaus’s experiment?
“Rose” used as a verb (They all rose) was followed by the probe word “flower.”
## Footnote
Lexical Priming – Experiment
59
What did Tannenhaus find when “rose” was used as a verb but probed with “flower”?
Flower meaning was still activated, showing all meanings of an ambiguous word are briefly accessed.
## Footnote
Lexical Priming – Findings
60
How did a 200 ms delay change the results in Tannenhaus’s study?
After 200 ms, priming no longer occurred for unrelated meanings (e.g., rose as verb → flower), but remained for consistent meanings (rose as noun → flower).
## Footnote
Lexical Priming – Findings
61
What do Tannenhaus’s findings show about the role of context in resolving ambiguity?
Context influences meaning after a slight delay, allowing all meanings to be briefly accessed first.
## Footnote
Lexical Ambiguity
62
What is meaning dominance?
The relative frequency with which different meanings of an ambiguous word occur.
## Footnote
[Meaning Dominance]
63
What is biased dominance?
When one meaning of an ambiguous word occurs more often than other meanings (e.g., “tin” = metal vs. container).
## Footnote
[Meaning Dominance]
64
What is balanced dominance?
When multiple meanings of an ambiguous word are equally likely (e.g., “cast” = members of a play vs. plaster cast).
## Footnote
[Meaning Dominance]
65
How does balanced dominance affect reading ambiguous words?
Both meanings are activated and compete, so readers look longer at the word compared to a control word with a single meaning.
## Footnote
[Meaning Dominance – Balanced]
66
How does biased dominance affect reading ambiguous words?
The dominant meaning is accessed quickly, so reading time is similar to a single-meaning control word.
## Footnote
[Meaning Dominance – Biased]
67
How can context influence the meaning of ambiguous words?
Context can bias activation toward a less frequent meaning, causing both meanings to be activated and increasing reading time.
## Footnote
[Context in Word Meaning]
68
Give an example where context activates a less frequent meaning of 'tin.'
“The miners went to the store and saw that they had beans in a tin.” → container meaning is strengthened by context.
## Footnote
[Context in Word Meaning]
69
Give an example where context activates the dominant meaning of 'tin.'
“The miners went under the mountains to look for tin.” → metal meaning is accessed rapidly.
## Footnote
[Context in Word Meaning]
70
What three factors influence how we access the meaning of a word?
(1) Word frequency, (2) Sentence context, (3) Meaning dominance.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Access]
71
Why is recognizing the meaning of words considered complex?
Because it depends on interactions among word frequency, context, and meaning dominance.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Access]
72
What three roles do sentences play in helping us understand words?
Sentences help us (1) deal with variability in word pronunciations, (2) perceive individual words in continuous speech, and (3) determine the meaning of ambiguous words.
## Footnote
Sentence Context
73
What is syntax?
The structure of a sentence and the rules that govern how words relate to each other.
## Footnote
Syntax
74
Why is syntax important for sentence comprehension?
Because meaning unfolds over time, and syntax provides cues for how words are grouped into phrases.
## Footnote
Syntax
75
What is parsing in language processing?
The process of grouping words into phrases to determine sentence meaning.
## Footnote
Parsing
76
Why can’t sentence meaning be created simply by adding up word meanings?
Because words can be ambiguous and sequences of words can be interpreted in multiple ways, requiring grouping into phrases.
## Footnote
Parsing
77
Give an example of how parsing changes sentence meaning.
“After the musician played the piano was wheeled off the stage.” → Correct parsing is “After the musician played, the piano was wheeled off the stage.”
## Footnote
Parsing Example
78
What are garden path sentences?
Sentences that initially lead the reader to interpret them one way but later require re-parsing to find the correct meaning.
## Footnote
Garden Path Sentences
79
Why are garden path sentences called misleading?
They create temporary ambiguity by leading the reader “down the garden path” with one interpretation before forcing a shift to another.
## Footnote
Garden Path Sentences
80
What does temporary ambiguity mean in sentence comprehension?
When a sentence initially supports one interpretation but later requires a different organisation of words to make sense.
## Footnote
Temporary Ambiguity
81
What is the Garden Path Model of Parsing?
A theory (Frazier, 1979) proposing that people use fast, syntax-based heuristics to group words into phrases as they read.
## Footnote
Garden Path Model
82
What are heuristics in the context of parsing?
Simple rules applied rapidly to make decisions about sentence structure; they are fast but can sometimes lead to errors.
## Footnote
Heuristics
83
Why are heuristics important for parsing language?
Because language unfolds quickly (about 200 words per minute), requiring rapid decisions about structure.
## Footnote
Heuristics
84
What happens when heuristics in parsing lead to the wrong interpretation?
The reader reconsiders and re-parses the sentence to correct the initial mistake.
## Footnote
Garden Path Model
85
What principle is central to the Garden Path Model?
Late Closure — the assumption that each new word belongs to the current phrase for as long as possible.
## Footnote
Late Closure
86
How does Late Closure work in the sentence 'After the musician played the piano was wheeled off the stage'?
The parser incorrectly keeps adding words to the first phrase, leading to the wrong interpretation until re-parsed.
## Footnote
Late Closure Example
87
What problem does Late Closure create in garden path sentences?
It leads readers 'down the garden path' by grouping too many words into one phrase, requiring reanalysis.
## Footnote
Garden Path Sentences
88
What critique has been made of the Garden Path Model?
Some researchers argue parsing is influenced not only by syntax but also by other factors from the start.
## Footnote
Garden Path Model – Critique
89
What is the key insight from the Garden Path Model?
Parsing relies on fast, syntax-based rules, but these rules can mislead us, showing both the efficiency and fallibility of language processing.
## Footnote
Garden Path Model – Summary
90
What is the constraint-based approach to parsing?
The idea that sentence parsing is influenced not only by syntax but also by word meaning, context, and other information from the start.
## Footnote
[Constraint-Based Parsing]
91
How does the constraint-based approach differ from the Garden Path Model?
The Garden Path Model emphasizes syntax-only heuristics, while the constraint-based approach includes meaning and context as constraints in parsing.
## Footnote
[Parsing Theories]
92
How can word meaning influence parsing?
Some words allow multiple interpretations (e.g., “defendant examined”), while others strongly suggest one interpretation (e.g., “evidence examined”).
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
93
Why is “The defendant examined by the lawyer was unclear” harder to parse than “The evidence examined by the lawyer was unclear”?
Because “defendant” could either be doing the examining or being examined, creating ambiguity, while “evidence” cannot examine anything.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
94
Give an example of how word meaning creates ambiguity in parsing.
“The dog buried in the sand was hidden” vs. “The treasure buried in the sand was hidden.” The dog could be doing the burying, but the treasure cannot.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
95
How can story context influence parsing?
Context can make ambiguous sentences more understandable by clarifying roles and actions.
## Footnote
[Story Context Influence]
96
What is the famous ambiguous sentence by Bever (1970)?
“The horse raced past the barn fell.”
## Footnote
[Garden Path Example]
97
Why is “The horse raced past the barn fell” confusing?
Readers initially mis-parse it, expecting “raced” to be the main verb, until “fell” forces reinterpretation.
## Footnote
[Garden Path Example]
98
How can context resolve the confusion in “The horse raced past the barn fell”?
A story clarifies that one horse raced past the barn, and that horse fell, so “raced past the barn” is a reduced relative clause.
## Footnote
[Story Context Influence]
99
What is the key insight from the constraint-based approach?
Parsing decisions are shaped by multiple interacting factors—syntax, word meaning, and context—right from the beginning.
## Footnote
[Constraint-Based Parsing – Summary]
100
What is the constraint-based approach to parsing?
The idea that sentence parsing is influenced not only by syntax but also by word meaning, context, and other information from the start.
## Footnote
[Constraint-Based Parsing]
101
How does the constraint-based approach differ from the Garden Path Model?
The Garden Path Model emphasizes syntax-only heuristics, while the constraint-based approach includes meaning and context as constraints in parsing.
## Footnote
[Parsing Theories]
102
How can word meaning influence parsing?
Some words allow multiple interpretations (e.g., “defendant examined”), while others strongly suggest one interpretation (e.g., “evidence examined”).
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
103
Why is “The defendant examined by the lawyer was unclear” harder to parse than “The evidence examined by the lawyer was unclear”?
Because “defendant” could either be doing the examining or being examined, creating ambiguity, while “evidence” cannot examine anything.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
104
Give an example of how word meaning creates ambiguity in parsing.
“The dog buried in the sand was hidden” vs. “The treasure buried in the sand was hidden.” The dog could be doing the burying, but the treasure cannot.
## Footnote
[Word Meaning Influence]
105
How can story context influence parsing?
Context can make ambiguous sentences more understandable by clarifying roles and actions.
## Footnote
[Story Context Influence]
106
What is the famous ambiguous sentence by Bever (1970)?
“The horse raced past the barn fell.”
## Footnote
[Garden Path Example]
107
Why is “The horse raced past the barn fell” confusing?
Readers initially mis-parse it, expecting “raced” to be the main verb, until “fell” forces reinterpretation.
## Footnote
[Garden Path Example]
108
How can context resolve the confusion in “The horse raced past the barn fell”?
A story clarifies that one horse raced past the barn, and that horse fell, so “raced past the barn” is a reduced relative clause.
## Footnote
[Story Context Influence]
109
What is the key insight from the constraint-based approach?
Parsing decisions are shaped by multiple interacting factors—syntax, word meaning, and context—right from the beginning.
## Footnote
[Constraint-Based Parsing – Summary]
110
What is a subject-relative construction?
A sentence in which the subject of the main clause is also the subject of the embedded clause.
## Footnote
Example: “The senator who spotted the reporter shouted.”
111
Why is “The senator who spotted the reporter shouted” a subject-relative construction?
Because “the senator” is the subject of both the main clause (the senator shouted) and the embedded clause (the senator spotted the reporter).
## Footnote
Example: “The senator who spotted the reporter shouted.”
112
What is an object-relative construction?
A sentence in which the subject of the main clause becomes the object in the embedded clause.
## Footnote
Example: “The senator who the reporter spotted shouted.”
113
Why is “The senator who the reporter spotted shouted” an object-relative construction?
Because “the senator” is the subject of the main clause but the object of the embedded clause (“the reporter spotted the senator”).
## Footnote
Example: “The senator who the reporter spotted shouted.”
114
Why are object-relative constructions more difficult to understand?
(1) They increase memory load since information must be held until the verb is reached, and (2) they are more complex because the subject/object roles differ across clauses.
115
What evidence shows subject-relative constructions are easier than object-relative constructions?
Subject-relative clauses account for ~65% of relative clauses in English, so readers have more exposure and practice with them.
116
How does prior experience influence comprehension of relative clauses?
Because subject-relative clauses are more common, we expect pronouns like “who” to be followed by verbs. When this expectation is violated, processing slows.
117
What role does prediction play in sentence processing?
We constantly predict what will come next in a sentence, which usually helps us process language quickly.
118
What happens when our predictions in sentence comprehension are wrong?
Incorrect predictions lead to temporary confusion and re-parsing, as in garden path sentences like “The defendant examined…” or “The horse raced past the barn fell.”
119
Why is prediction especially important in language comprehension?
Because it helps us keep up with the rapid pace of language and becomes crucial in noisy conditions, poor phone connections, or when listening to foreign accents.
120
What do the examples of the defendant, the horse, the apple, and the senator illustrate?
That prediction guides sentence comprehension, and while it sometimes misleads us, it is generally essential for efficient processing.
121
What did Altmann & Kamide (1999) study in relation to sentence processing?
They studied how readers make predictions while processing sentences by tracking participants’ eye movements.
## Footnote
Altmann & Kamide, 1999
122
How did Altmann & Kamide (1999) measure prediction during sentence processing?
Participants heard sentences while viewing a scene, and their eye movements towards target objects were recorded.
## Footnote
Altmann & Kamide, 1999
123
In Altmann & Kamide’s experiment, what was the target object in the sentences 'The boy will move the cake' or 'The boy will eat the cake'?
The target object was 'cake.'
## Footnote
Altmann & Kamide, 1999
124
What happened to eye movements in the 'move' sentence versus the 'eat' sentence?
- For 'move,' participants looked at cake 127 ms after hearing the word.
- For 'eat,' participants looked at cake 87 ms before hearing the word.
## Footnote
Altmann & Kamide, 1999
125
What does the difference in eye movements between 'move' and 'eat' sentences show?
Hearing 'eat' triggered predictive processing — participants anticipated that 'cake' would follow before it was spoken.
## Footnote
Prediction in Language
126
What is the broader implication of Altmann & Kamide’s findings?
Prediction occurs constantly during language comprehension, helping us process sentences rapidly.
## Footnote
Prediction in Language
127
How are stories more than the sum of individual sentences?
Sentences in stories are connected, and readers use these relationships to build coherent narratives.
## Footnote
Story Comprehension
128
What role do inferences play in understanding text and stories?
Readers use prior knowledge to go beyond the literal text, often unconsciously, to create coherence.
## Footnote
Inferences in Language
129
What did Bransford & Johnson (1973) demonstrate about inference in reading?
Participants read about John pounding a nail and later falsely remembered 'John was using a hammer,' inferring details not stated.
## Footnote
Bransford & Johnson, 1973
130
Why did participants in Bransford & Johnson’s study falsely recall the hammer detail?
Because they inferred it from the context of pounding a nail, showing how memory is constructive and inference-driven.
## Footnote
Inferences in Language
131
What is the key insight from inference research in language?
We actively construct meaning by filling in gaps with prior knowledge, which helps comprehension but can also create false memories.
## Footnote
Inference – Summary
132
What is the role of inference in narratives?
To create connections between different parts of a story, ensuring coherence and a meaningful mental representation.
## Footnote
Inference in Narratives
133
What is narrative coherence?
The mental representation of text in which clear relations are formed between story parts and the main topic.
## Footnote
Coherence
134
What is anaphoric inference?
An inference that connects pronouns or references (e.g., “she,” “he”) to the correct noun mentioned earlier.
## Footnote
Anaphoric Inference
135
Example of anaphoric inference?
“Riffy Fee won the dog show. She has won the last three.” → “She” refers to Riffy Fee.
## Footnote
Anaphoric Inference
136
Why is George Foreman’s “we fish and then we grill them” sentence humorous?
Because structure suggests “kids” were grilled, but world knowledge lets us infer “fish” were grilled.
## Footnote
Anaphoric Inference – World Knowledge
137
What is instrument inference?
Inferring the tool or object used in an action, even when it isn’t stated explicitly.
## Footnote
Instrument Inference
138
Example of instrument inference?
“Shakespeare wrote Hamlet at his desk” → we infer he used a quill pen, not a laptop.
## Footnote
Instrument Inference
139
What is causal inference?
Inferring that one event was caused by another, even if not explicitly stated.
## Footnote
Causal Inference
140
Example of causal inference?
“Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away.” → infer aspirin caused the relief.
## Footnote
Causal Inference
141
Why is the shower–headache example a weaker causal inference?
Because the link is less direct; we must work harder to imagine a plausible connection (e.g., relaxation).
## Footnote
Causal Inference Example
142
How can story context strengthen causal inferences?
Prior knowledge (e.g., Sharon loves showers because they reduce tension) makes it easier to link events.
## Footnote
Story Context in Causal Inference
143
Why are inferences essential for text comprehension?
They allow readers to integrate sentences into a coherent story, going beyond literal words to create meaning.
## Footnote
Inference – Summary
144
What is a situation model in reading comprehension?
A mental representation of the people, objects, locations, and events described in a story, simulating perceptual and motor characteristics.
## Footnote
Situation Model
145
Example of a situation model?
Reading “The runner jumps over the hole” likely creates an image of a runner on a track jumping over a hole.
## Footnote
Situation Model Example
146
What did Stanfield & Zwaan (2001) study about situation models?
They tested whether object orientation affects comprehension by presenting sentences about nails (wall vs. floor) followed by pictures of nails.
## Footnote
Stanfield & Zwaan, 2001
147
What was the finding of Stanfield & Zwaan’s orientation experiment?
Participants responded faster when the pictured nail orientation matched the orientation implied in the sentence.
## Footnote
Stanfield & Zwaan, 2001
148
What did Zwaan et al. (2002) study about situation models?
They tested object shape by presenting sentences about eagles (in sky vs. in nest) followed by eagle pictures with wings outstretched or closed.
## Footnote
Zwaan et al., 2002
149
What was the finding of Zwaan et al.’s shape experiment?
Participants responded faster when the eagle picture matched the situation described in the sentence.
## Footnote
Zwaan et al., 2002
150
What do the Stanfield & Zwaan (2001) and Zwaan et al. (2002) experiments show?
People create perceptual simulations that match the situations described in sentences.
## Footnote
Situation Model Evidence
151
What is the N-400 component in ERP studies?
A negative brain response occurring ~400 ms after a word, larger when the word is unexpected.
## Footnote
N-400 ERP
152
Example of N-400 response?
“The cat won’t eat” elicits a smaller N-400 than “The cat won’t bake,” because “bake” is unexpected.
## Footnote
N-400 Example
153
What did Metusalem et al. (2012) study using the N-400?
They measured brain responses while participants read stories to see how situational knowledge is activated.
## Footnote
Metusalem et al., 2012
154
What is the key implication of N-400 findings for situation models?
Our brains anticipate likely words and events during reading, and unexpected words trigger stronger responses.
## Footnote
N-400 – Situation Models
155
What were the three conditions for target words in Metusalem et al.’s (2012) ERP study?
(1) Expected word (e.g., stage), (2) Event-related but unexpected word (e.g., guitar), (3) Event-unrelated unexpected word (e.g., barn).
## Footnote
[Metusalem et al., 2012]
156
What was the N400 response to the expected word 'stage'?
Small or none, since it fit the meaning of the concert scenario.
## Footnote
[Metusalem et al., 2012]
157
What was the N400 response to the unrelated word 'barn'?
Large N400, because it was unrelated to the scenario.
## Footnote
[Metusalem et al., 2012]
158
What was the N400 response to the related but unexpected word 'guitar'?
Smaller than 'barn,' showing it was partially activated due to its association with concerts.
## Footnote
[Metusalem et al., 2012]
159
What did Metusalem et al. (2012) conclude from the 'guitar' result?
Our knowledge of related concepts is automatically activated during story comprehension, even when not explicitly mentioned.
## Footnote
[Metusalem et al., 2012]
160
What does the ERP evidence show about situation models?
Readers rapidly access and activate world knowledge and related details while reading stories.
## Footnote
[Situation Models – ERP Evidence]
161
How does motor simulation contribute to situation models?
Readers simulate motor characteristics of objects/events, such as imagining pedaling while reading about bicycles.
## Footnote
[Motor Simulation]
162
What did Hauk et al. (2004) investigate with fMRI?
Brain activation during actual movements (foot, finger, tongue) vs. reading action words (kick, pick, lick).
## Footnote
[Hauk et al., 2004]
163
What did Hauk et al. (2004) find about action words and brain activation?
Reading action words activated similar brain areas as actual movements, though activation was less extensive.
## Footnote
[Hauk et al., 2004]
164
Example of Hauk et al. findings?
Leg words and leg movements both activated areas near the brain’s center line; arm words and movements activated areas further out.
## Footnote
[Hauk et al., 2004]
165
What is the key implication of Hauk et al. (2004) for situation models?
There is a physiological link between reading action words and activating motor areas, supporting the idea of embodied simulation in comprehension.
## Footnote
[Situation Models – Motor Evidence]
166
What is the overall conclusion from research on story comprehension?
Understanding text is a creative, dynamic process involving sentence parsing, inferences linking sentences, and mental simulations of perceptual/motor details.
## Footnote
Story Comprehension – Summary
167
What is the most common form of language production?
Conversation (dialogue between two or more people).
## Footnote
Conversation Basics
168
Why can conversations sometimes be difficult?
Because successful conversation depends on awareness of what the other person knows and expects.
## Footnote
Conversation Difficulty
169
What is the “given–new contract” in conversation?
A principle that speakers should include (1) given information the listener already knows and (2) new information introduced for the first time.
## Footnote
Given–New Contract
170
Example of the given–new contract?
“Ed had a birthday” (given). “He got an alligator” (new). Then: “The alligator was his favourite present” (given from sentence 1, new = favourite present).
## Footnote
Given–New Contract Example
171
What did Haviland & Clark (1974) study about the given–new contract?
They tested sentence pairs and measured comprehension time for second sentences.
## Footnote
Haviland & Clark, 1974
172
What result did Haviland & Clark (1974) find?
Comprehension was slower when the given info did not include the new info (e.g., “We checked the picnic supplies. The beer was warm.”).
## Footnote
Haviland & Clark, 1974
173
Why was comprehension slower in the “picnic supplies → beer” example?
Because listeners had to infer that beer was among the picnic supplies.
## Footnote
Inference in Given–New Contract
174
How does the given–new contract show collaboration in conversation?
It ensures shared understanding by linking new info to what both parties already know.
## Footnote
Collaboration in Conversation
175
What did Clark (1996) propose about language and collaboration?
Language is a form of joint action requiring establishing common ground (shared knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions).
## Footnote
Clark, 1996 – Joint Action
176
What is “common ground” in conversation?
The shared knowledge, beliefs, and assumptions that speakers use to ensure mutual understanding.
## Footnote
Common Ground
177
What is common ground in conversation?
The shared mental knowledge and beliefs among conversational partners, which increases as the conversation continues.
## Footnote
[Common Ground]
178
Why is the word “shared” important in defining common ground?
Because it emphasizes that both conversational partners must recognize the same knowledge for communication to flow smoothly.
## Footnote
[Common Ground – Shared]
179
Example of adapting communication based on common ground?
Doctors using “heart attack” with patients but “myocardial infarction” with other doctors.
## Footnote
[Common Ground – Example]
180
What did the student conversation about “The Secret of Rowan Irish” illustrate?
People often use sentence fragments, and conversations build gradually until participants reach shared understanding.
## Footnote
[Common Ground – Conversation Example]
181
What is a referential communication task?
A task where two people exchange information to identify objects through naming or description.
## Footnote
[Referential Communication Task]
182
What did Stellman & Brennan (1993) study using referential communication tasks?
Partners (director and matcher) described abstract geometric shapes to align card orders.
## Footnote
[Stellman & Brennan, 1993]
183
How did conversations change across trials in Stellman & Brennan’s study?
They became briefer as partners established shared labels for the objects.
## Footnote
[Stellman & Brennan, 1993 – Trials]
184
What did Stellman & Brennan’s results show about common ground?
Once common ground was established, partners could communicate quickly with simple references like “the monk.”
## Footnote
[Common Ground Evidence]
185
What is entrainment in conversation?
Synchronization between conversational partners in aspects like naming, gestures, speaking rate, body position, or pronunciation.
## Footnote
[Entrainment]
186
Why does entrainment matter for conversation?
It shows how partners adapt and align with each other, making communication smoother and more efficient.
## Footnote
[Entrainment – Importance]
187
What is syntactic coordination in conversation?
The tendency for conversational partners to use similar grammatical constructions.
## Footnote
Syntactic Coordination
188
Example of syntactic coordination?
Robber: “You’ve got to hear and witness it…” Lookout: “You have got to experience exactly the same position…”
## Footnote
Bock, 1990 Example
189
What is syntactic priming?
Hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chance of producing a sentence with the same construction.
## Footnote
Syntactic Priming
190
Why is syntactic priming important for conversation?
It helps speakers coordinate grammatical form, reducing cognitive load and making dialogue flow more smoothly.
## Footnote
Syntactic Priming – Importance
191
How did Branigan et al. (2000) study syntactic priming?
In a card description task, a confederate produced a priming sentence, and researchers measured if the participant’s description matched the syntax.
## Footnote
Branigan et al., 2000
192
What were the results of Branigan et al. (2000)?
On 78% of trials, participants’ syntax matched the confederate’s priming statement.
## Footnote
Branigan et al., 2000 Findings
193
Why does syntactic priming reduce computational load?
Copying another’s sentence form is easier than creating a new one from scratch.
## Footnote
Syntactic Priming – Efficiency
194
What processes make conversations easier on the semantic side?
Taking the other person’s knowledge into account and establishing common ground.
## Footnote
Conversations – Semantic Side
195
What processes make conversations easier on the syntactic side?
Coordinating the syntactic form of statements through syntactic priming.
## Footnote
Conversations – Syntactic Side
196
What is “theory of mind” in conversations?
The ability to understand what others feel, think, or believe, and to interpret gestures, expressions, and tone.
## Footnote
Theory of Mind – Conversation
197
What is turn-taking in conversation?
The process of anticipating when it is appropriate to speak during dialogue.
## Footnote
Turn-Taking
198
Why are conversations complex beyond analyzing words or sentences?
They involve planning speech, processing input, theory of mind, nonverbal cues, and smooth turn-taking—all within rapid social interaction.
## Footnote
Conversation Complexity
199
What is the speech-to-song effect described by Deutsch (2010)?
Repeated speech phrases can begin to sound like singing, showing a close connection between speech and song.
## Footnote
[Deutsch, 2010]
200
How are music and language similar in relation to emotion?
Both convey emotion: music as the “language of emotion,” and language through prosody (intonation, rhythm, pitch, cadence).
## Footnote
[Music–Language Emotion]
201
How does emotion highlight a difference between music and language?
Music creates emotion through sounds without inherent meaning; language creates emotion through meaningful words (e.g., “I hate you” vs. “I love you”).
## Footnote
[Music–Language Difference – Emotion]
202
What modern development shows how written language can express emotion?
Emojis, such as “Face with Tears of Joy,” which was Oxford Dictionary’s 2015 Word of the Year.
## Footnote
[Emoji & Emotion in Language]
203
What structural similarity do music and language share?
Both combine small elements (tones in music, words in language) into structured sequences governed by syntax.
## Footnote
[Music–Language Structural Similarity]
204
How do the rules of syntax differ between music and language?
Music combines notes based on sound relations; language combines words based on meaning (e.g., nouns, verbs, “who did what to whom”).
## Footnote
[Syntax – Music vs. Language]
205
What is the overall message about music and language?
Despite important differences, they are similar in many respects, including structure, emotion, and expectations.
## Footnote
[Music–Language Overall Message]
206
How are expectations important in language comprehension?
Readers and listeners continuously predict what will come next as a sentence unfolds.
## Footnote
[Expectations in Language]
207
How are expectations important in music comprehension?
Listeners generate expectations about notes, organized around the tonic (key note).
## Footnote
[Expectations in Music]
208
What is the “tonic” in music?
The key note of a scale (e.g., C in the key of C: C D E F G A B C), which organizes pitches.
## Footnote
[Tonic in Music]
209
What is the “return to the tonic” effect in music?
Songs beginning with a tonic often end with it; stopping before the tonic creates an unsettling sense of violation of musical syntax.
## Footnote
[Return to the Tonic]
210
Example of return to the tonic in a melody?
“Twinkle Twinkle Little Star,” which begins and ends on C in the key of C.
## Footnote
[Return to the Tonic Example]
211
What is another way musical syntax can be violated besides breaking return to the tonic?
Inserting an unlikely note or chord that doesn’t fit the tonality of the melody.
## Footnote
Musical Syntax Violation
212
What did Patel et al. (1998) study in relation to music?
How listeners respond behaviorally and physiologically to chords that fit or violate musical syntax.
## Footnote
Patel et al., 1998
213
What were the three types of target chords in Patel’s experiment?
(1) In-key chord (fits well), (2) nearby key chord (fits less well), (3) distant key chord (fits the least).
## Footnote
Patel et al., 1998 – Targets
214
How did participants judge the acceptability of the chords?
In-key = 80% acceptable, nearby key = 49%, distant key = 28%.
## Footnote
Patel et al., 1998 – Behavioral Results
215
What did Patel interpret listeners’ chord judgments as?
Judgments of “grammatical correctness” in music, parallel to language syntax.
## Footnote
Music–Language Parallel
216
Which ERP component is associated with violations of syntax?
The P600, a positive response about 600 ms after stimulus onset.
## Footnote
ERP – P600
217
What ERP pattern is seen with grammatically correct vs. incorrect sentences?
Correct sentences show little/no P600, but incorrect ones (e.g., “cats won’t eat in”) elicit a large P600.
## Footnote
ERP – Language Syntax
218
What ERP results did Patel et al. (1998) find for music?
In-key chords = no P600; nearby and distant key chords = P600 responses, with larger responses for less fitting chords.
## Footnote
Patel et al., 1998 – ERP Results
219
What was Patel’s conclusion about music and syntax?
Music, like language, has a syntax that influences how we react to it.
## Footnote
Patel – Conclusion
220
How can listeners predict what comes next in music?
Based on experience and expectations, similar to how past visual experiences guide perception of new scenes.
## Footnote
Music Expectations
221
Why can we often predict notes even in unfamiliar songs?
Our history of listening to music shapes expectations, allowing predictions even without repetition.
## Footnote
Music Predictions – Experience Based
222
What did Patel’s ERP studies show about music and language?
Both show similar electrical responses (P600) to syntactic violations, suggesting related processes but not definitive overlap in brain areas.
## Footnote
Patel – ERP Evidence
223
How did Patel et al. (2008) test stroke patients with Broca’s aphasia?
Patients completed a language task (understanding complex sentences) and a music task (detecting off-key chords).
## Footnote
Patel et al., 2008 – Method
224
What were the results of Patel et al. (2008) with Broca’s aphasia patients?
Patients performed poorly on both tasks, but deficits were much greater for language than music.
## Footnote
Patel et al., 2008 – Results
225
What do these results suggest about music and language mechanisms?
They are connected, but not strongly; deficits in one don’t fully predict deficits in the other.
## Footnote
Music–Language Connection
226
What is congenital amusia?
A condition where individuals are born with severe problems in music perception (e.g., discriminating melodies) but often have normal language ability.
## Footnote
Congenital Amusia
227
What opposite dissociation has been observed between music and language?
Patients with severe language deficits (e.g., Broca’s aphasia) who can still detect out-of-key chords.
## Footnote
Music–Language Dissociation
228
What evidence supports separate brain mechanisms for music and language?
Neuropsychological cases of dissociation, such as congenital amusia without language deficits, or aphasia with preserved musical ability.
## Footnote
Separate Mechanisms Evidence
229
What evidence supports overlapping brain mechanisms for music and language?
Neuroimaging shows some areas (e.g., Broca’s area) activated by both language syntax and musical structure.
## Footnote
Overlap Evidence
230
Why doesn’t overlapping activation prove shared mechanisms?
Different neural networks may be active within the same brain area for music vs. language.
## Footnote
Overlap – Caution
231
What is the current conclusion about music–language brain overlap?
Evidence suggests both separateness (from neuropsychology) and overlap (from neuroimaging/behavioral studies). The overlap is partial, not complete.
## Footnote
Music–Language Conclusion
232
Why is the relation between music and language still a “work in progress”?
Because findings vary, and ongoing research is needed to clarify how much overlap truly exists.
## Footnote
Music–Language Ongoing Research
233
What is pragmatics
The appropriate use of language, for example in some contexts we might use formal language and other contexts informal language
PSY310 Learning & Cognition
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Chapter 1 Introduction191
-
Introduction To Cognitive Psychology98
-
Attention150
-
JA - Driver (2001) Attention166
-
Visual Perception206
-
Short Term Memory266
-
LTM: Structure281
-
LTM: Encoding, Retrieval. & Consolidation162
-
Language233
-
Rendall (2021) Aping Language152
-
Innate Behaviour And Non-associative Learning322
-
Operant Conditioning230
-
Classical Conditioning506
-
Observational Learning0
