Where type of rocks is copper found in?
Primarily igneous, also in sedimentary
What are the copper ores?
- Chalcopyrite (main ore, 50% of copper production)
- Bornite
- Malachite
Outline the Lumwana Mine
- One of the largest copper mines in Africa (located in Zambia)
- Open pit mine
- Produces around 250,000 tonnes of copper per year
- Low copper grade -> 0.52%
- Main copper mineral is chalcopyrite
What is the distribution of copper reserves/resources?
- South America has the largest measured and undiscovered copper reserves -> around 45%, but generally low grade
- Evenly distributed between other countries except Europe which has a lower share
- Africa tends to have the highest grade copper -> the DRC has the highest grade globally
Which countries are the largest copper producers?
- Chile (25% of global output)
- Peru
- China
- USA
- Australia
- DRC
What are the end uses for copper?
- Electricity -> wires, solar panels, semi-conductors, EVs -> over 60% of global copper used in electronics
- Construction -> pipes, ornaments
- Transport -> radiators, heating systems
What are the components of demand for copper?
- Electric and power infrastructure -> 30-35%
- Construction -> 30%
- Transport -> 12%
- Industrial machinery -> 15%
- Consumer electronic products -> 10%
What proportion of copper concentrates are processed in their region of origin?
2/3
Who are the greatest consumers of copper?
- China is the biggest -> around 50% of global demand
- USA 2nd, India 3rd
Outline patterns of ownership of copper mines with examples
- Estimated 60% of global copper production controlled by TNCs -> eg. Barrick is a TNC that owns Lumwana Mine
- Rest is state controlled -> eg. Chile’s state-owned mining company Codelco
Outline porphyry ore deposits for copper
- 60% of all copper supply
- Low grade
- Formed at destructive plate margins when hydrothermal fluids escape from magma chambers to rock layers above to form mineral deposits
- Extracted in open-cast pits eg. Lumwana Mine
- Found in the Andes
Outline massive sulphide deposits for copper
- Formed at constructive plate boundaries along mid-ocean ridges
- Higher grade -> 2-5% copper content
- Hydrothermal release of magma on seafloor as plates pull apart means that deposits merge with sediment and become embedded
- eg. forming at the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Outline strata bound copper deposits
- Richest in copper content -> up to 6%
- Least widely distributed
- Copper rich sea water interacts with sedimentary rocks, leading to the deposition of copper in specific layers of ocean basins
- eg. copper belt of southern Katanga Province in the DRC
What are locational factors impacting copper occurrence and extraction?
- Tectonic plate boundaries
- Relief and altitude -> increases infrastructure costs and reduces efficiency of labour
- Arid environments -> less vegetation makes exploration easier
- Water availability -> copper processing requires large quantities of water
How is copper extracted?
- Open-cast (pit) mining -> used for large, low-grade porphyry deposits near the surface, high environmental impact, eg. Lumwana Mine
- Underground mining -> used for high-grade, deep deposits, less surface disturbance, more expensive, eg. Konkola Mine (Zambia)
What are the environmental impacts of Lumwana Mine?
- Uranium contaminated drinking water around the mine, which caused 193 former workers to seek compensation
- Expected to disturb 8700 hectares of land, 5000 of which is National Forest
- The mine produces over 250,000 tonnes of CO2 emissions
What are sustainability issues associated with copper extraction including possible solutions
- Noise and dust pollution -> baffle mounds and water sprays
- Excessive landtake and habitat destruction -> restoration and rehabilitation plans -> Barrick Gold taking part in REDD+ UN initiative, involves conservation of large areas of forest near the mine (300,000 hectares)
What are sustainability issues associated with copper trade including possible solutions
- Transport emissions -> bulk efficient transport, proposal for a Green Trade Alliance (GTA) between countries which would enforce protectionist policies to encourage non GTA countries to comply with environmental standarsd
What are sustainability issues associated with copper processing including possible solutions
- Water contamination (eg. in 2025, a dam at the Sino-Metals Leach Zambia Limited mine collapsed, releasing over 50 million litres of toxic waste into the Kaufe River which is a critical water source for 60% of Zambia, Kitwe had its water supply completely cut off) -> passing water through crushed limestone immobilises toxic metals
- Water turbidity which is when sediment blocks sunlight for aquatic plants and chokes some of them -> use holding lagoons to let sediment settle first
How much of the annual global copper supply comes from recycled materials?
Around 35%
