Resource Security

Question 1

What is a resource?

Answer 1

Any aspect of the natural environment (usually concentrations of minerals) that can be used to meet human needs. They may be viable to extract at some point but it is uneconomic or unavailable to do so at present

-> eg. 80 million barrels worth of oil beneath Antarctic Ice worth $40 trillion

Question 2

What is a reserve

Answer 2

The part of a resource that is available for extraction under existing economic and political conditions and with available technology
-> eg. Saudi Arabia proven oil reserves

Question 3

What are stock resources?

Answer 3

Non-renewable resources which can be permanently expended -> will eventually run out

Eg. fossil fuels

Question 4

What are flow resources?

Answer 4

Resources that are renewable and can be replaced

Eg. water and timber

Question 5

What categories can stock resources be classified into?

Answer 5

Possible, inferred, indicated, measured

Question 6

What is a possible resource (with example)?

Answer 6

• One that is largely undiscovered and confidence in existence is low -> thought to exist but haven’t been sampled
• Eg. Scientists think there are large amounts of oil under Antarctica d to geology but drilling is banned under the Madrid Protocol

Question 7

What is an inferred resource (with example)?

Answer 7

• One whose quality and quantity is estimated based on limited evidence -> identified but estimated and not measured
• Eg. Surveys suggest there is copper in a remote part of the Andes, based on rock samples and nearby mines

Question 8

What is an indicated resource (with example)?

Answer 8

• One whose quantity and quality is estimated with a level of confidence sufficient to allow further evaluation of its economic viability -> size partly measured
• Eg. Test drilling in northern Canada shows lithium deposits, but companies are still estimating how much can be extracted

Question 9

What is a measured resource (with example)?

Answer 9

• One whose quantity and quality is estimated with a high level of confidence -> viewed as economically viable and size is known accurately
• Eg. The Pilbara region of Western Australia which contains some of the most thoroughly explored iron ore deposits in the world

Question 10

What is a resource frontier?

Answer 10

An area on the periphery of a country or territory which is being opened for resource extraction for the first time

Eg. Antarctica, the Arctic

Question 11

What is a resource peak (eg. peak oil)?

Answer 11

The point at which the maximum production rate of a resource occurs, with production declining in subsequent years.

Question 12

What are the 3 stages in natural resource development over time?

Answer 12

Exploration, exploitation, development

Question 13

What is the exploration stage?

Answer 13

A scientific and technological process of identifying deposits of the resource -> may be upgraded from possible/inferred to measured

Question 14

What is the exploitation stage?

Answer 14

The process of extracting the resource and using it to the fullest or most profitable use

Question 15

What is the development stage?

Answer 15

After the initial exploitation, there may be a need to further develop the resource field to meet growing demand or due to declining economic productivity of projects. For example, searching in new areas or develop new approaches

Question 16

What does Hubbert’s Curve show?

Answer 16

The amount of production of a resource over a time period -> usually increases exponentially until it peaks and is followed by decreasing production

Question 17

What is an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)?

Answer 17

A process used to identify and understand the environmental consequences of a proposed project.

Question 18

Outline the Arctic as a resource frontier

Answer 18

• The Arctic is becoming more accessible, making offshore oil drilling and new shipping routes more viable
• Arctic sea ice shrinking at a rate of 12.2% per decade
• Contains estimated 13% of global undiscovered oil
• Contains estimated 30% of global undiscovered natural gas

Question 19

Outline the distribution of oil

Answer 19

• Around 66% of global oil supplies are found in the Middle East
• OPEC can control the supply and global price of oil

Question 20

Outline geopolitical factors influencing oil

Answer 20

• OPEC manages the supply of oil and sets world prices, distorting free market forces
• TNCs can exploit LICs, eg. Shell has been criticised for not investing enough in the local area in the Niger Delta
• Russia-Ukraine war caused oil prices to rise 70%

Question 21

Why is water a geopolitical risk?

Answer 21

• Essential for human survival, food production, energy and industry
• Unevenly distributed
• Shared across borders
• Highly sensitive to climate change and pop. growth
• Control over water can translate into political leverage

Question 22

Outline geopolitical issues of the GERD

Answer 22

• Over 90% of Egypt’s freshwater comes from the river Nile
• The 1959 Nile River Agreement means that Egypt is currently allocated 55.5 billion m³ annually while its actual needs are 114 billion m³
• Ethiopia has entered agreements to sell electricity from the GERD to Kenya and Tanzania to gain political support
• Negotiations between Egypt and Ethiopia have repeatedly stalled since 2011

Question 23

Why are minerals a geopolitical risk?

Answer 23

• Uneven global distribution (eg. around 45% of copper reserves found in South America)
• Minerals are essential for energy infrastructure, military equipment and technology

Question 24

Outline the geopolitics of copper

Answer 24

• In 1971, Chile nationalised its copper mines to reduce dependency on US TNCs and reclaim control over its primary natural resource

Question 25

What are the global patterns of water availability?

Answer 25

Most regions across the world experience little or no economic water scarcity such as most of Europe and South Africa. However, most of Africa experiences economic water scarcity.

Question 26

What is physical water scarcity?

Answer 26

When the demand for water exceeds the supply of water

Question 27

What is economic water scarcity?

Answer 27

When people cannot afford water even if there is a sufficient supply of water

Question 28

What are the global patterns of water demand?

Answer 28

- Greatest demand in HICs - UAE and North America have the highest per capita water usage globally - Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest per capita usage

Question 29

What are sources of water?

Answer 29

- River abstraction - Reservoirs - Boreholes - Glaciers - Desalination - Recycling

Question 30

What is water stress?

Answer 30

When the amount of renewable water in a country is less than 1700m³ per capita

Question 31

What are the components of water demand?

Answer 31

- Agriculture (irrigation, livestock) - 70% of global water - Industry (cooling, processing) - 22% - Domestic use - 8% - However, in HICs 60% of their water is used in industry and in LICs 80% is used in agriculture

Question 32

How much has water demand increased since 1900?

Answer 32

Approximately 600%

Question 33

What are physical factors influencing the supply of water?

Answer 33

Climate - eg. less rainfall in summer Geology - permeable rocks can be infiltrated and store water in aquifers -> generally higher quality than surface stores Drainage - a greater drainage density and number of inputs to a river helps ensure a consistent water supply. Gentle relief means water passes more slowly through an area and there is greater time for it to infiltrate and contribute to groundwater

Question 34

What are strategies to increase water supply?

Answer 34

- Catchment management (eg. afforestation) - Water transfer and diversion - Storage (eg. dams and reservoirs) - Desalination

Question 35

Give an example of an afforestation project to increase water supply

Answer 35

Loess Plateau (China) Restoration Project: - By the 1990s the area suffered from rapid surface runoff, reduced infiltration due to deforestation and overgrazing - The project caused vegetation cover to double from the 1990s to the 2000s - Improved groundwater recharge by around 30%, however some areas saw a fall in recharge of 40% due to increased water use by vegetation

Question 36

Give an example of a water transfer and diversion scheme to increase water supply

Answer 36

South-North Water Transfer Project (China): - Is designed to transfer 45 billion m³ of water per year from the Yangtze River basin in southern China to the dry north (eg. Beijing) - 45% of China's pop. is in the North but they only have 20% of water - Provides Beijing with over 70% of its water supply - However, over 300,000 people displaced, ecosystem disruption

Question 37

Give an example of a water storage scheme to increase water supply

Answer 37

Aswan Dam: - Lake Nasser can store over 140km³ of water - Stores excess water from the summer monsoon so that Egypt can access water all year round - Has enabled year round farming, improving agriculture - Generates hydroelectric power - Large scale as over 90% of Egypt's water comes from the Nile which the Aswan Dam regulates

Question 38

Give an example of a desalination scheme to increase water supply

Answer 38

Israel: - Over 80% of its water comes from desalination -> reduced reliance on the Jordan River - However, not viable for landlocked countries or LICs - Brine discharge can harm ecosystems

Question 39

Describe the Aswan Dam

Answer 39

- Built in Egypt as a solution to rising demand for water - Its reservoir Lake Nasser can store over 140km³ of water - Also aimed to reduce flooding downstream by regulating the flow of the Nile - Helped improve irrigation by a third in the surrounding area - However, has had major environmental impacts: coastal erosion rates increased 10x due to lack of sediment for Nile delta, marine productivity has fallen as nutrients are trapped behind the dam - Increased use of fertilisers by farmers as fewer nutrients now deposited by floods - Also caused 100,000 people to be relocated

Question 40

What are strategies to manage water consumption?

Answer 40

- Water meters - High water charges for companies - Use of 'drip irrigation' rather than sprinklers

Question 41

Give an example of water meters being effective

Answer 41

Metered households in the UK use 10-15% less water than unmetered ones

Question 42

Give an example of high water charges for corporations being effective

Answer 42

Ford reduced its water usage by almost a third by changing its painting process from 3 stages to 2

Question 43

What percentage of total water consumption do households and corporations account for?

Answer 43

- Households - 15% - Corporations - 40%

Question 44

What is the idea of virtual water trade (Allen) ?

Answer 44

When goods and services are exchanged, so is virtual water - the total water used in the production of a commodity -> 90% of the water we consume is virtual

Question 45

What is the issue of conservation in relation to water management?

Answer 45

Large amounts of water are lost through pipe leakages -> 24% of water supplied by Thames Water is lost through leakages, however they are now using AI to fix more than 1000s of leaks per week

Question 46

Outline the recycling of water

Answer 46

Impurities can be removed from sewage wastewater so that the water can be reused -> eg. makes up more than 30% of Singapore's water use, in London 90% of water is recycled immediately after use However, there are health concerns about use of this for drinking and irrigation.

Question 47

Outline greywater use

Answer 47

Greywater is water that has been used for washing, cleaning and appliances but not been in contact with faecal matter. Greywater recycling systems are expensive in the UK (£2000 per unit) but can save 30% on external water consumption

Question 48

Outline groundwater management

Answer 48

Aquifers deplete if abstraction is faster than replenishment. Over-abstraction, seawater intrusion and groundwater pollution are all potential threats to aquifers. However, aquifers can be recharged naturally or artificially. Polluted aquifers can take decades to recover.