1
Q
Define limiting factor
A
Component of ecosystem that limits distribution or the numbers of a population
2
Q
Define limiting biotic factors
A
interactions between organisms that limit distribution or the numbers of a population (predation, competition)
3
Q
Examples of limiting abiotic factors
A
temperature, salinity, PH, oxygen, altitude, rainfall, wind velocity, etc.
4
Q
What does “global distribution” mean?
A
where species live according to a map of the world which reflects abiotic factors
5
Q
What is a “range of tolerance”
A
The range of abiotic factors tolerable to an organism
6
Q
What are the two ways ranges of tolerance can be found?
A
- Experimentally
- Correlation
7
Q
What 5 limiting factors affect animals
A
- water availability
- Temperature
- Food
- Space
- Mates
8
Q
What is the optimum zone of tolerance?
A
Conditions favour maximum fitness, growth, abundance and survival
9
Q
What is the zone of stress?
A
Zone of fewer and lower survival, making organisms unable to reproduce
10
Q
What is the zone of intolerance?
A
The zone beyond the critical minimum or maximum where organisms cannot appear
11
Q
Can one factor be more important in regulating distribution and abundance than others?
A
Yes, however many factors interact with one another
12
Q
What makes the pompeii worm so heat-tolerant
A
It contains a bacterial (Epsilonproteobacteria) coating that redistributes heat to cool the worm
13
Q
What are halophytes?
A
Plants that can grow in soil/water of HIGH SALINITY
14
Q
What percent of plants are halophytes?
A
0.5%
15
Q
What “phyte” are most plants?
A
glycophytes
16
Q
Why are high salt concentrations not optimal for most plants?
A
High salt concentrations make it hard for roots to extract water because of osmotic events
17
Q
What is a fundemental niche?
A
Niche occupied within range of tolerance of biotic and abiotic conditions if there are no competitors
18
Q
What is a realized niche?
A
The actual niche occupied if there are competitors
19
Q
What happens to the inferior competitor in competitive exclusion?
A
The inferior competitor will die out or move away to avoid competition
20
Q
What can an inferior competitors do in the same habitat to closely related species to avoid competition?
A
closely related species may evolve clearly defined seperate niches
21
Q
What is the ecological theory?
A
The theory that every species must have a realized niche that differs from realized niches of all other species if it is to survive in an ecosystem
22
Q
In geographical scales, which type of limiting factors are more dominant?
A
Abiotic factors
23
Q
What are the three main requirements for sustainability in an ecosystem?
A
- Nutrient availability
- detoxification and recycling of waste products
- energy availability
24
Q
What is the unit of measurement for a pyramid of energy
A
energy per unit area per unit time (KJ/m^2yr)
25
What is a mesocosm
an enclosed experimental area set up to explore ecological relationships
26
What are the two advantages of mesocosms
1. control and monitoring of variables
2. investigate the precise impact of distributing factors
27
is the disadvantage of a mesocosm?
It is unrealistic because of it being completely sealed off from the outside
28
What is a detritivore?
A heterotroph that obtains organic nutrients from non-living organic matter by internal digestion
29
What is a saprotroph?
A heterotroph that obtains organic nutrients from non-living organic matter by external digestion
30
What is two examples of saprotrophs?
Bacillius
sea stars
31
What is a mixotroph?
Unicellular organism that may be heterotrophic or autootrophic depending on resources available
32
What are two examples of mixotrophs?
phytoplankton
ciliates
33
What is a photoautotroph?
An organism containing chlorophyll, using solar energy to convert to chemical energy
34
What type of nutrition do some protists have?
Some are mixotrophs that may be obligate or facultative nutrition
35
What nutrition do some fungi & bacteria have?
saprotrophic nutrition
36
What are the three determinants of biomes
1. temperature
2. Precipitation
3. insolation/sunlight
37
What are the 6 names of the main biomes?
1. temperate forest
2. Taiga
3. grasslands
4. Tundra
5. Hot desert
6. tropical rainforest
38
What are temperate rainforests and how is it's productivity?
1. deciduous and evergreen forests to grasslands
2. Productive for part of the year because of cold winters and warm summers
39
Where are temperate rainforests?
40 and 60 degrees of the equators
40
What determines if grasslands can be converted to temperate rainforets?
Rainfall (500-1500 mm/yr)
41
What is the taiga and the climate?
Northern coniferous forest
Extreme cold, low precipitation
42
How long can winters last in the taiga?
6 months
43
Which land biome is the largest?
Taiga (27%)
44
How are grasslands formed?
When there is enough precipitation to stop a desert but not enough for a rainforest
45
What is the diversity and productivity of grasslands
high diversity
low productivity
46
Why does it help for biomes to be near the sea?
Water has cooling properties that limit fluctuation of temperature
47
What happens to grass in grasslands during winter time?
The grass goes dormant
48
What happens to water in the Tundra?
what does that mean for productivity?
Water is locked up as ice and unavilable to plants
Low productivity
49
What is the climate of the tundra biome?
low temperature
low rainfall
50
What plants grow in the tundra?
Mosses and lichens
51
Where are tundras?
Polar regions where sunlight is limited.
52
what is the weather like in the desert?
high daytime temperature
cold nights
low rainfall
53
What ar the three methods to live in the hot desert?
1. expire
2. evade
3. endure
54
What is the expire method to live in the hot desert?
The parent dies but leaves behind tough seeds or eggs
55
What is the evade method to live in the hot desert?
Being active at night or below ground
56
What is the endure method to survive in the hot desert
fatty deposits in tissue that can be used as repitory substrates releasing water in roots, stems, and leaves
57
waht is the climate in tropical rainforests?
High temperature
high precipitation and light intensity
58
What's special about the yellow meranti tree and where does it live?
1. 100m high to overtop other trees and outcompete for light
2. Tropical rainforest
59
Why can spider monkeys survive in the tropical rainforest?
Thye adapted for long arms and hand like feet to survive in the trees
60
What type of teeth do herbivores have?
large, flatt teeth for grinding fibrous plants and plant tissue
61
What type of teeth do omnivores have?
Mix of teeth to break down meat and plants
62
Which insects have jaw-like mouthparts and what are they for?
Beetles and other insects have them for biting, chewing, and ingesting pieces of leaves
63
What are the names of the tubular mouthparts in aphids and what are they for?
Stylets are for piercing leaves/stems to reach phloem sieve tubes to feed on sap
64
What's the difference between phloems and xylems?
xylems transport water and phloems transport sugar
65
What does pectinase from insects do?
Pectinase digests pectin that sticks cell walls together so the stylet can slide between cell walls and into phloem vessels to get sucrose
66
what are 3 plant adaptations to deter herbivores?
1. tough and sharp pointed spines
2. stings that cause pain
3. toxin
67
What are 3 types of predatory adaptations?
1. physical/structural
2.chemical
3.behavioural
68
What are the three types of error in population sampling?
1. sampling error
2. random error
3. systematic error
69
What is sampling error?
The difference between sample statistics and the actual value of the whole population
70
What is random error?
It is error due to unknown or unpredictable differences
71
What is sytematic error?
It is error that leads to inaccuracy which can result from faults or flaws in design that shift all measurements.
72
How can sytematic error be reduced?
It can be reduced or eliminated using careful design
73
Whatis quadrat sampling used for?
Sessile organisms
74
What does a curve with a higher standard deviation look like?
A spread out and low curve
75
What is the formula for the population size estimate?
MN/R
M=Number of individuals marked in the first sample
N=Number of individuals captured in the second sample
R=number of marked individuals recaptured in the second sample
76
What is exponential growth?
exponential growth that increases in speed and does not slow down
77
What are 3 reasons for exponential growth?
1. limiting factors do not restrict population growth
2. Plentiful resources without competition
3. favourable abiotic components and lack of predators or disease
78
What are the three phases of sigmoidial growth?
1. Exponential growth
2. transition phase
3. plateau phase
79
what is carrying capactiy?
Maximum size of a population that an environment can support
80
What is it called when a factor has the same effect regardless of the size of a population?
Density independent factor
81
What happens to density-dependent factors when the population becomes larger?
The effect is increased
82
What are the three types of density dependent factors
1. Competition
2. predation
3. infectious disease/parasatism/prey infestation
83
what are two examples of internal density-dependent factors?
Fertility or size of breeding territory
84
What are 2 examples of external density-dependent factors?
1. Increased risk of predation
2. Transfer of pathogens/pests in dense populations
85
What is an intraspecific relationship?
Relationships between individuals of the same species, usually within the same population
86
What are the two types of intraspecific relationships?
1. Competition
2. Cooperation
87
What does intraspecific competition lead to?
It leads to natural selection over generations that favours beneficial traits
88
How do male emperor penguins exhibit cooperation?
They huddle for heat
89
What are the 6 types of interspecific relationships?
1. Herbivory
2. predation
3. interspecific competition
4. mutualism
5. parasitism
6. pathogenicity
90
What do orchids do to mycorrhizal fungi?
They eat it for carbon and essentially depend on it
91
What is parasitism?
The host is harmed and the other benefits
92
What is pathogenicity?
Causing disease in the host, which can change carry8ing capacity
93
What is another word for native species?
"endemic"
94
what is the competitive exclusion principle?
The principle that states that 2 species can't hold the same ecological niche forever
95
What counts as an invasive species?
If it outcompetes the endemic species
96
How is interspecific competition indicated?
If 1 species is more successful when the other isn't in the environment
97
What are the four stpes of cyclical oscillations/predator-prey cycles?
1. Increase in prey leads to increase in predators
2. increase in predation leads to decrease in prey
3. decrease in prey leads to decrease in predators
4. decrease in predation leads to more prey
98
Where are cyclical oscillations more common?
In places where weather conditions vary from year to year
99
What type of feedback loop are predator/prey relationships?
Negative feedback
100
Why is predation good for prey?
It removes the old and sick first, leading to a stronger gene pool
101
What is top-down control?
The higher trophic level influences the ocmmunity structure of lower trophic levels through predation
102
What is bottom-up control?
THe lower trophic level affects the higher trophic levels by resource restriction
103
What is an example of top-down control?
Sea otters eating urchins to sustain the kelp forests food web
104
What is an example of bottom-up control?
Increase in nutrients allows for more phytoplankton, sustaining the rest of the ecosystem
105
what are the 2 types of secondary metabolites?
1. antibiotics
2. allelopathic agents
106
what is the main purpose of antibiotics?
to kill/prevent the growth of other micro-organisms
107
what part of the fungi excretes enzymes?
the hyphae
108
what does penicllium do to prevent competition?
it secretes penicillin
109
Why is penicillin excreted only when food is scarce?
When food is abundant, it focuses entirely on growth and reproduction
110
what are allelopathic agents?
metabolites secreted into the soil to kill/deter growth of its neighbours
111
what are the three ways allelopathic agents are carried out?
1. releasing chemical compounds from roots into soil
2. release release allelochemicals in gas form from stomata
3. leaves drop contrianing toxi chemicals and release chemicals when decomposed
112
What is a biogeochemical cycle?
The exchange of chemicals elements between biological and geochemical components
113
what is a carbon sink?
something that absorbs/stores more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases
114
what is carbon sequestration?
the process of capturing and storing atmospheric CO2
115
what is an example of carbon sequestration?
forest regrowth
116
What are carbon fluxes?
carbon sources that release more carbon into the atmosphere than it absorbs
117
What is peat
not fully decomposed plant matter formed over millions of years
118
What are 3 examples of release of carbon dioxide during combustion?
1. Peat
2. Burning fossil fuels
3. Fire in the amazon
119
What accounts for the most CO2 emissions?
Burning fossil fuels
120
What are keeling curves?
graphs that measure CO2 in the atmosphere
121
What is the yearly fluctuation between seasons in the northern hemisphere for CO2?
Lower in summer, higher in winter due to photosynthesis
122
What is the principal source of energy that sustains most ecosystems?
sunlight
123
What is an example of an ecosystem that doesn't have sunlight and how does it generate energy?
Deep sea hydrothermal vents that get volcanic energy
124
How do caves get energy?
Streams bring dead organic matter for energy
125
What is primary production?
The accumulation of carbon compounds in biomass by autotrophs
126
How is primary production measured?
By mass of carbon per unit area per unit time (kg/m2yr
127
WHat is gross primary productivity
the raw total of glucose produced by plants in an area and time
128
What is net primary productivity
The total energy remaining after accounting for the energy it takes to make it
129
What is secondary production
the accumulation of carbon in biomass by heterotrophs
130
what is gross secondary productivity
food eaten-faecal loss
131
what is net secondary productivity?
Gross Secondary Productivity-Respitory loss
132
What are the 4 requirements for a stable ecosystem?
1. stable supply of energy
2. nutrient cycliing that has no leaks/loss
3. High genetic diversity
4. Climate that is within tolerance levels for the species living there
133
what ar ethe 4 types of disruptions to ecosystems?
1. Harvesting
2. erosion
3. eutrophication (water only)
4. selevtive removal
134
What is an ecological tipping point?
When a system crosses the ecological threshold that is difficult to reverse
135
what happens when an ecosystem crosses a tipping point?
There will be an abrupt change rather than a gradual change
136
What 4 types of changes have we caused to the amazon rainforest?
1. Resource consumption
2. transofrmation of habitat
3. consumption of energy
4. climate change
137
How to calculate percent change?
change in forest cover/initial forest cover x100%
138
What does a negative percent change indicate when calculating forest cover?
loss of forest coverage
139
What is a keystone species?
a part of an ecosystem that if removed, will lead to its collapse
140
What is an exmaple of keytone species?
The pisaster seastar that eat mussels, maintaining seaweeds for other species to eat
141
Why are aguoti considered keystone species?
They burying of nuts in Brazil allow for trees to grow
142
How is sustainability maintained in an agricultural ecosystem?
If the rate of harvest is less than the rate of replacement
143
What are the three requirements for sustainability in ecosytems?
1. Indefinetly cycling nutrients
2. detoxification of waste
3. constant energy supply (usually sun)
144
Why are incentives for conservation of cod in the north atlantic limited?
They are an open-access resource in international waters
145
What are 4 ways we improved sustainability for cod in the north atlantic?
1. eclusion zones in nursery areas
2. Increased sizes of holes in nets to allow smaller fish to escape
3. reduced fishing fleets
4. quotas for boats
146
What is the maximum sustainable yield?
the maximum average catch that stock can sustain over a long period of time
147
What does maximum sustainable yield correspond to?
the balance between reproductive rate and harvesting rate of stock
148
What are the 4 factors that affect agriculture?
1. Climate
2. location
3. soil
4. pests
149
Why is agriculture a significant contribution to climate change?
Its carbon footprint is very high by releasing methane
150
Why is tilling bad for the soil?
it disrupts the natural structure of soil
151
why are monocultures bad?
they lower biodiversity
152
What 2 things can soil exposure cause?
1. soil erosion
2. leaching
153
What is soil erosion?
infertile soil
154
What is leaching in soil?
When minerals are washed away with rains
155
how do farmers replenish soil?
By adding fertilizers or agrochemicals
156
What are macrophytes?
Submerged aquatic plants
157
what are cyanobacteria
toxic, photosynthetic bacteria
158
What is the biochemical oxygen demand?
The measure of dissovled oxygen to break down organic material in a given volume of water during aerobic processes
159
What is bioaccumulation?
The buildup of non-biodegrable chemicals in body over a lifetime
160
In what chemicals is bioaccumulation common?
In fat-soluble chemicals that can't be easily excreted (weed)
161
Why do top predators have more toxins?
they live longer so they have more time to accumulate it
162
what is biomagnification?
The increase in concentration of chemical substances at each successive trophic level in the food chain (top pred has a lot of bad stuff)
163
Why are plastics harmful to the environment?
They degrade very slowly and releease toxic carbon compounds into the ocean
164
What are macroplastics?
Large, easily visible debris
165
How many microplastic particles are in the ocean?
Around 50 trillion
166
How small are microplastics?
<5mm in diameter
167
Why are plastics harmful to Laysan Albatross?
Laysan albatross feed their chicks full of plastic, which leaves no room for actual food and lead to startvation
168
Why are plastics harmful to sea turtles?
They look like jelly fish and it kills the turtles when they eat it
169
What is a xerosere?
The formation of an ecosystem in an environment devoid of vegetation or soil
170
What are the 4 principles of primary succession?
1. When more species join comapred to the loss in species, species diversity increases
2. primary production increases when larger plants colonize
3. Food webs become more complex
4. Increasein nutrient cycling
171
What are examples of pioneer species?
Lichen, moss, bacteria
172
What happens after pioneer species die after initial conditions?
It makes soil which leads to plant growth
173
When do shrubs/taller plants come in after soil is created?
After soil depth increases
174
When is "new land" referred to as a climax community?
Once animals show up
175
What are the two types of communities?
1. Pioneer
2. Climax
176
Which community has low gp, energy cost, but high NPP and lots of sun/little shade?
Pioneer communities
177
Which community has a low NPP but high GPP?
Climax community
178
What is cyclical succession?
When ecosystems have cycles of change that repeat over and over again instead of reaching an end
179
What does it mean for something to be "edaphic"?
To be influenced by the soil
180
What is a plagioclimax?
A stable community developped by human intervention
181
What can cause arrested succession?
Heavy grazing/recurrent disturbances
182
What happens in terms of succession when a wetland is drained?
it forces rapid succession which kicks out aquatic plants and makes way for terrestial organisms
183
What are 3 consequences of natural ecosystems being degraded by human actions?
1. Loss of biodiversity
2. Rapid rates of extinction
3. Loss of services from ecosytems (flood protection)
184
What 4 interventions can speed up rewilding?
1. Distributing seeds
2. reintroducing apex predators
3. re-establishing connectivity in fragmented ecosystems
4. controlling invasive species
185
What is the difference between climate and weather?
Climate is a long term average of weather
186
What is climate change?
Long-term change in global or regional climate patterns caused by natural or human factors
187
What type of radiation is ultraviolet?
shortwave radiation
188
What does anthropogenic mean?
to be caused by humans
189
What is the main contributor to weather?
heat
190
Why does temerature drop quickly at night in areas with clear skies rather than cloudy?
Water in the atmosphere absorbs heat energy and radiates it back to earth
191
How was change in temperature measured using ice sheets?
Ice cores drilled in the antarctic and greenland accumulated layers of frozen snow with trapped gases which can be measured
192
What is phenology?
THe study of timing of seasonal activities in plants or animals
193
What is a photoperiod?
The length of time an organism is exposed to light during a 24 hr period
194
Is photoperiod affected by climate change?
no
195
Why is day length/photoperiod length important?
It signals major developmental transitions in plants such as flowering
196
Why might it be harmful for birds to migrate based on day length and not temperature?
They may arrive before or after resources are available and will starve
197
How do deciduous trees know when to stop growing?
Change in day length leads to bud set
198
what are 3 examples of mismatched interactions that can happen due to phenological conditions?
1. Plant/herbivore
2. Predator/prey
3.Pollinator/angiosperm
199
What is an angiosperm?
flowering plant
200
Why does global warming affect the spruce bark beetle?
Each generation is complete in 1 year and attacks trees before they can recover because they don't need to hibernate as long
201
Why is there an increase in dark tawny owls?
There are milder winters that makes lighter feathers more visible to predators than darker ones
202
What is aforestation?
Planting new trees in areas that are not forested
203
How is agroforestry different from aforestation?
Agroforestry integrates trees, crops, and livestock for agricultural production while afforestation is just to make a forest
204
What is forest regeneration?
Naturally renewing tree cover after disturbances such as fire or other natural distasters
205
What is it called when humans try to restore a forest back to its original ecosystem?
Forest Restoration
206
Why are increased temperatures and forest fires considered positive feedback loops?
When temperatures are increased, there is a higher likelihood of fire, which releases CO2 due to combustion which increases temperatures
207
What happens to CO2 when water is warmer?
It absorbs less co2
208
What are the 5 main positive feedback cycles in global warming?
1. Snow and Ice melting
2. Permafrost melting
3. Decrease in solubility of water
4. droughts and fires
5. terrestrial and marine carbon feedback
209
What is albedo?
The amount of light reflected off of a surface
210
How is the melting of snow and ice a positive feedback loop?
Open water, which is darker is exposed as ice melts, absorbs more radtiation which further accelerates melting of ice
211
How is permafrost a contributor of global warming?
Permafrost contains detritus, which will begin to decay once permafrost melts, releasing methane
212
What can happen to a tundra when melted, why is it bad for the environment?
It will turn into a wetland and create archaens which release methane gas
213
What is the relationship between solubility of gas and temperature
When temperature rises, solubility decreases
214
What is the optimum range for coral/zooxanthallae to stay healthy?
23-29 degrees celsius
215
What happens when zooxanthallae leave corals?
The corals turn white and die
216
What is ocean acidification?
The absorption of Carbon Dioxide in our waters which lowers the pH levels in there
217
Why is it bad for the ocean to acidify so quickly?
pH will be outside of range of tolerance and cannot evolve fast enough
218
How does acidification work (walk thru the steps of carbon dioxide reacting with water)
CO2+H2O->H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
H2CO3->HCO3-+H+ (carbonic ions and hydrogen ions)
219
Why is acidification of the ocean harmful to reef-building corals?
They use calcium carbonate for their exoskeletons and if the concentration of carbonate ions is too low the viability of these exoskeletons are under threat
220
What are the 6 main effects of increasing acidity in the ocean?
1. Less free carbonate ions for calcification of shells
2. Thinning and dissolving of shells
3. Disappearance of corals, urchins, and molluscs lose food
4. Appearance of invasive algae/sea grasses
5. Loss of ~1 trillion in terms of shreoline protection and revenues for tourism/food
6. Death of phytoplankton with calcium carbonate which is at the bottom of the food chain, disrupting the food web
221
Why might boreal forests turn into carbon fluxes instead of sinks?
With increasing fires, boreal forests, which are known to accumulate more detritus that decomposed, will produce far more CO2 if burned
222
How does climate change affect ocean currents?
Heat transport is slower and weaker because of large amounts of freshwater entering the sea
223
what are poleward and upslope range shifts?
When temperatures are rising due to global warming, species will move higher and higher to remain in their optimum range
224
What is an obligate organism?
An organism that requires a host to survive
225
What is a facultative organism
An organism that is better off without a host but can still survive on its own
Bio 11
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