1
Q
What was the eon called 4.3 billion years ago
A
Hadean eon
2
Q
What 5 compounds/elements did the atmosphere consist of during the Hadean eon
A
Ammonia, Nitrogen, Methane, water and higher levels of Co2
3
Q
What are greenhouse gases
A
gases in the atmosphere that trap heat by absorbing infared radiation (heat) and spreading it everywhere
4
Q
True or False: UV light levels were high during the Hadean eon
A
True
5
Q
Was there an ozone layer before the Hadean eon
A
no
6
Q
Which two people thought of the Primordial Soup Hypothesis
A
Alexander Oparin and JBS Haldone
7
Q
What energy added to early earth could have created the building blocks of early life?
A
Meteors, lightning, tectonic plate shifts (earthquakes)
8
Q
how were larger, high energy molecules formed?
A
Small, very reactive pieces recombine into a larger high energy molecule
9
Q
Are bases of nucleotides good at minimizing UV radiation?
A
yes
10
Q
High UV may have been a ________ factor
A
selection factor
11
Q
What are the three principles that define life (on earth)
A
- The ability to evolve and reproduce
- Must be a chemical “machine” that can receive and respond to information
- Life form must be contained and seperate from environment but still in communication with it
12
Q
What are the 3 common features of cells?
A
- Stable, partially permeable membrane surrounding components
- Genetic maerial that can be passed on to new cells, controlling function and behaviour
- Metabolic processes which enable energy generation, growth and self maintenance
13
Q
What 4 things are reuired to form living things from non-living materials?
A
- Synthesis of simple organic molecules (Ethane, propane, etc.)
- Assembly of monomers to polymers (Aa’s–>protein)
- Development of self replicating molecules (DNA/RNA)
4, Retention of these molecules with membrenous sacs (Inside should be different from outside)
14
Q
What is the protocell-first theory and why is it hard to prove?
A
Cell-like compartment arose spontaneously while dividing into daughter cells. It evolved till it acuired a genetic system
No fossils to track
15
Q
What is the Gene-first theory?
A
Genetic materials or a small set of genetic molecules arose spontaneously
16
Q
What is the metabolism-first theory?
A
Self sustaining system of simple reactions and energy arose spontaneously
17
Q
What is the most likely …-first theory and why?
A
Metabolism-first because growth, replication and division require energy
18
Q
What did Miller and Urey discover and when did they discover it?
A
1953
They discovered that amino acids naturally formed when passing electric sparks through organic molecules, confirming that molecules can be synthesized outside cells without oxygen
19
Q
How do monomers polymerise without cells or enzymes?
A
They come together in pockets where further cehmical reactions are possible
20
Q
What 3 things make clay important to the polymerization of monomers
A
- It binds and concentrates nucleotides to promote phosphodiester bond formation
- It may have helped get the first polyribonucleotides ( short chain of nucleotides)
- Clay was present in water close to lava flows, volcanoes, and deep sea thermal vents which were common in ancient earth
21
Q
Why could Miller-Urey’s experiment be wrong?
A
It assumed that early Earth was rich in hydrogen and methane, which it wasn’t
22
Q
Why is it likely that fatty acids formed protcell membranes?
A
They have a polar end and a non-polar end
23
Q
What happens when lipid molecules come in contact with water and how does it relate to a bilayer?
A
When they come in contact there is a monolayer on the surface of water and with more lipids, they can form a bilayer
24
Q
What happens to bilayers in water (think of a lava lamp)
A
They form small vesicles, which have a distinctive internal chemistry from surrounding
25
What are the 3 steps of evolution of Cell membranes from fatty acids
1. Protocells formed from fatty acids
2. Condensation of fatty acids with glycerol makes triglycerides
3. Phosphorylation makes a simple phospholipid
26
Why is RNA the presumed first genetic material?
RNA contains info and can function as an enzyme while DNA only contains info
27
What does life need for a self-replicating system to self replicate?
an enzyme to catalyze the chemical change
28
What is the 4 aspects about the RNA World hypothesis?
1. RNA can form hydrogen bonds between nucleotides on the same chain and have enzymatic properties
2. RNA existed in protocells before modern cells with DNA
3. Amino acids are joined together using the RNA template
4. RNA primers are used in DNA replication
29
What does LUCA stand for?
Last universal common ancestor
30
Why is luca important?
It is the evolutionary link between the abiotic and biotic phase of Earth's history
31
How many years after the creation of earth did LUCA appear?
560 milion years after the creation of earth
32
How to determinine the age of a rock?
1. Radiometric dating with C-14
33
Why is C-14 used in carbon dating?
It is radioactie and therefore decays at a predictable rate after death. Scientists can estimate how long it has been alive by seeing how long it has left to live
34
What is the molecular clock?
the rate of genetic mutations that estimate the time since two species diverged from a common ancestor
35
Where/how could LUCA have evolved?
In deep-sea hydrothermal vents
36
Where are you likely to find fossils in rocks
Ancient seafloor hydrothermal vent precipitates
37
What are 5 things LUCA must have been?
1. Anaerobic
2. Carbon fixing
3. Hydrogen dependent
4. Nitrogen fixing
5. Thermophilic (attracted to super high temps)
38
What gene did LUCA have that is common in today's extremophiles (Archaean organism that enjoys extreme temperature or pH)
It had a gene for reverse gyrase, which cleaves DNA
39
What did the environment select for after the atmosphere settled?
Organisms that could utilize solar energy
40
What is the theory that explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts in eukaryotic cells?
Endosymbiotic cell theory
41
What are the 5 pieces of evidence that supoport the endosymbiotic theory?
1. Mito and chloro are similar in size and strucure
2. They are double membrane bound
3. They ahve their own genetic material and can self-reproduce
4. Their DNA is circular like bacteria
5. They have the same ribosomes which are the same size as other prokaryotes
42
What is the word when a cell eats another cell?
invagination
43
What is endocytosis?
the taking in of matter by a living cell by invagination of its membrane to form a vacuole.
44
what is antibiotic resistance
Bacteria gaining natural resistance to overuse of antibiotics
45
which type of bacteria spreads faster
Pathogenic bacteria (salmonella)
46
Can antibiotic resistance be inherited?
Yes
47
How can antibiotic resistance be inherited?
through plasmids during cell sex
48
How are the galapagos finches related to ecological niches?
The finches are all the same species but evolved different beaks and feet to accomodate the food source in their ecosystem
49
1 sentence to descibe evolution
Cumulative change in heritable characteristics of a population
50
How can fossils and fossil records prove evolution?
Remains of plants or animals can show environmental conditions and adaptations over time
51
What is 1 problem with fossil records
1. Not all organisms can be fossilized
52
What counts as direct evidence of fossils
Bones, teeth, shells
53
Indirect evidence for evolution
Poo, teethmarks, footprints, burrows
54
What’s an example of artificial selection
Farmers replanting the best crops
55
What is embryology
It’s the study of how some organisms share similar embryonic stages and carry similar genes because they have a common ancestor
56
How are phylogenetic trees sorted
By DNA similarity
57
What is convergent evolution and an example
Structures that come from different origins but share functions
Eg analogous structure: wing of bird and wing of bat
58
What is divergent evolution and an example
Members of the same evolutionary line develop different structures for different functions
Eg snake pelvis and whale pelvis
59
What is a vestigial structure and an example
Structures that had function but are not used anymore like wisdom teeth
60
Wha us the order of period, epoch, era, age, and eons in descending orderg
Eon, era, period, epoch, Age
61
What is Jean baptiste Lamarcks theory of evolution
Change through use and disuse of an individual that can be passed on
Long necks are from stretching
62
What is a paradigm shift
Shift in thinking of a general population
63
What is relative dating
Comparing rock layers to create a geologic time scale
64
What is absolute dating
Measure of parent to daughter radioactive isotopes to determine age
65
Which radioactive elements are used for absolute dating
K40 and C-14
66
What is the theory of natural selection
Those most suited to the environment survive, prosper and pass on their genes.
67
What is natural selection dictated by?
Enviroment
68
Natural selection leads to an increase in the frequency of characteristics that make an individual….
Better adapted
69
What are the six steps of the Darwin-Wallace theory of evolution
1. Populations should increase at an exponential rate
2. In nature, most populations remain constant
3. There must be a struggle for existence
4. There is always variation within a species
5. Some traits are more favourable than others
6. Those with favourable traits survive and reproduce
70
What is speciation
When populations evolve to diverge from each other giving rise to new species
71
What is a species
A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring
72
What is it called when a male looks very different from a female of the same species
Sexual dimorphism
73
What are the four agents of evolutionary change
1. Mutations
2. Gene flow
3. Nonrandom mating
4. Genetic drift
74
How do mutations provide evolutionary change
They provide new alleles and create variation
75
How does gene flow affect evolutionary change
Movement of alleles between population through migration can make 2 populations similar
76
How does nonrandom mating create evolutionary change?
Individuals choose based on preferable genotype/phenotype
77
What is genetic drift
Chafe in allele frequencies of gene pool due to chance
78
What are three symptoms of sickle cell anemia
1. Low iron
2. Cold
3. Tired/dizzy
79
What’s the difference between a typical red blood cell and a sickled one
Sickled ones are deformed and therefore carry less oxygen and may also block arteries or veins
80
What’s the relationship between malaria and sickle cell anemia
Those with sickle cell anemia don’t die from malaria so those that are only carriers will survive to pass on their genes
81
Why do parents split genetic information half-half
Gametes only contain half the info that’s required in a cell
82
What is relative frequency
The number of times an allele occurs in a gene pool compared with the number of times the other allele occurs in the same gene pool
83
What is continuous variation
Variation that can appear at any value and are usually controlled by several different genes
84
Wha is it called when a trait is dictated by several different genes
Polygene
85
What is discontinuous variation in traits?
Discrete and distinct groups with no intermediaries usually controlled by 1 gene and 2 alleles
86
Wha are 3 things genetic variation comes from
1. Genes being mixed during sexual reproduction
2. Genes being shuffled during recombination
3. Random mutation
87
Which type of variation does natural variation operate on
Phenotypic variation
88
What is the definition of a population
Collection of individuals of the same species that can interbreed
89
What is evolution in terms of relative frequency
Evolution isn’t Change in the relative frequencies of alleles in the same gene pool of a population
90
What is evolutionary fitness
Success of individual in passing genes to the next generation
91
What is adaptation
Genetic characteristics that increase fitness
92
What is a niche and how many species can occupy a singular niche
Combination of organisms “job” and its habitat
93
What are 2 facts about speciation
1. It can be gradual or abrupt
2. Requires reproductive isolation and differential/divergent selection
94
What is it called when two species are not able to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
Reproductive isolation
95
What is allopatric speciation
When populations in different geographical areas become seperate species
96
What is sympatric speciation
2 groups are reproductively isolated within the same environment
97
Which type of speciation is more common?
Allopatric
98
What is the ONLY factor of genetic drift?
Chance
99
What is genetic drift?
When theres a random change in allele frequency of a gene
When a trait becomes common due to chance
100
What size population is genetic drift common in?
Small populations
101
What does the existence of genetic drift show?
That not all characteristics contribute to fitness
102
What is the founder effect
When a small group of individuals found a colony and only a fraction of the total genetic diversity of the original gene pool is represented?
103
What is it called when a natural disaster or human aggression nearly wipes out a population?
Bottleneck effect
104
What is an interspecific hybrid?
A product of cross-breeding different species done by humans
105
What type of breeders usually do interspecific breeding?
Plant breeders
106
How do species avoid hybridization
Sterile offspring is a waste of time, so many zygote die during development
107
What can ensure that an animal is not wasting its time mating with an inferior mate?
Mating rituals
108
Why can some interspecific hybrids come out as fertile?
Some species have overlapping ranges
109
What are three barriers to prevent interbreeding BEFORE fertilization can be attempted
1. Habitat differences
2. Behavioural differences
3. Temporal differences
110
What are three barriers to prevent interbreeding AFTER fertilization can be attempted
1. Creation of non-viable hybrids that can die prematurely
2. Infertile hybrids from an odd number of chromosomes
3. Less fertile hybrids that eventually die out
111
What is gradualism?
Evolutionary change that happens slowly over time
112
What is punctuated equilibrium
Long periods without appreciable change and short periods of rapid evolution
113
What activates punctuated equilibrium?
A dramatic change in environment that leaves species to fill empty niches
114
What is the red queen hypothesis about?
Explains how coevolution of competing species creates dynamic equilibrium in which probability of extinction remains fairly constant over time
In simple words, one species evolves, making it more competitive, the competitors also end up evolving due to selection pressures to match it
115
What happens when a species in the red queen hypothesis cannot keep up in terms of evolution?
It become extinct
116
How many times does meiosis split?
twice
117
How many cells are made at the end of Meiosis?
four
118
What are cells called after completing meiosis?
Gametes
119
What does meiosis 1 seperate?
Seperates the homologous chromosomes into two intermediate cells
120
What happens in Prophase1?
Chrmosomes are duplicated
121
In which step does the cell go from diploid to haploid in meiosis?
Telophase 1
122
What is meiosis 2 similar to?
Mitosis
123
what defines polyploidy?
When sets of homologous chromosomes surpasses 2
124
How does polyploidy happen?
When duplication of chromosomes happens without cell division, aka nondisjunction
125
What can polyploidy lead to?
Speciation
126
Why does polyploidy happen more often in plants than in animals?
Animals need their organs and limbs in specific areas to function properly, plants do not have that need
127
What are three things that polyploidy does for plants?
1. Allows hybrids to carry out meiosis
2. Larger and more vigorous
3. Reduces impact of negative mutations because there are more copies of each gene
128
What are the two types of polyploid organisms called?
1. Autopolyploid
2. Allopolyploid
129
What is it called when there is polyploidy in a single species?
Autopolyploid
130
What is the usual reason for an autopolyploid?
Nondisjunction during meiosis when homologous pairs fail to seperate, resulting in one daughter cell with two sets of chromosomes
131
What is it called when there is polyploidy from two diferent species?
Allopolyploidy
132
When a polyploid fuses with a normal gamete, how many chromosomes are in the zygote?
3
133
How are allopolyploids made?
When diploid gametes from individuals of different species fuse together to produce a polyploid zygote known as a polyploid hybrid
134
What are the 4 signs that allopolyploids show?
1. Improved biological function
2. Larger
3. More fertile
4. More invasive
135
True or false: invasive species are usually hybrids
True
136
Why are 4n individuals unable to produce fertile offspring with 2n individuals?
A 2n gamete from the 4n individual and an n gamete from the 2n individual produces an infertile, 3n zygote
137
How does speciation happen because of polyploidy?
4n individuals can't reproduce fertile offspring with the original 2n ones
138
What is stabilizing selection?
When the phenotype corresponds with optimal environmental conditions, operating against extreme forms
139
What is directional selection?
When the nevironemnt favours one phenotype at one extreme (peppered moth)
140
What is diruptive selection?
Co-existence of more than one phenotype that is usually results from multiple selection pressure
141
What are the 3 types of selection and which one is the rarest?
1. Stabilizing
2. Directional
3. disruptive (rarest)
142
What are the 5 different types of pre-zygotic isolation to promote speciation?
1. Behavioural
2. Ecological
3. Geographical
4. Mechanical
5. Temporal
143
What is allopatric speciation?
When populations occupy different environments
144
What is sympatric speciation?
When populations are reproductively isolated within the same environment
145
What isolating mechanism occurs when two species have different mating rituals?
Behavioural isolation
146
What is ecological isolation?
What two species occupy different habtitats in the same environment, like if a species of cat were in the trees and another was only on the ground
147
What isolation is caused by a physical barrier like a mountain range or a river?
Geographical isolation
148
What is mechanical isolation?
When two specie are physically incompatible, like a great dane and a chihuahua
149
What isolation happens when two species are reproductively active at different times?
Temporal isolation
150
What are the three types of post-zygotic isolating systems?
1. Hybrid inviability
2. Hybrid infertility
3. Hybrid Breakdown
151
What is hybrid inviability?
When a hybrid dies before it can reproduce
152
What is it called when a hybrid's second or later generations are infertile?
Hybrid breakdown
153
What 5 assumptions are required for the hardy-weinberg principle?
1. Large population
2. Non-random mating
3. No mutation
4. No gene flow
5. No natural selection or allele-specific mortality
154
what does it mean if the genotype frequencies in a population do not fit the hardy weinberg equation?
One or more of the conditions is not being met
155
What is a sign that evolution is happening in the hardy weinberg principle?
The gene pool of a population is changing
156
What is the hardy weinberg equation?,
p2+2pq+q2 = 1
157
What does p+q=1 mean?
p is percentage of dominant alleles
q is the percentage of recessive alleles
their total should be 100%
158
what is biodiversity
Amount of living or biological diversity in an area
159
What is ecosystem diversity
Range of different habitats or number of ecological niches per unit area in an ecosystem
160
What is the point of conservation
To conserve species and genetic diversity
161
Which ecosystem is more diverse: Woodlands or deserts, why?
Woodlands have streams, soil and trees while desert only has sand an occasional vegetation
162
What is species diversity
Variety of species per unit area
163
What is genetic diversity
Range of genetic material in a population
164
What is richness
Number of species in an area
165
What is evenness
Relative abundance of each species
166
Does a community with similar abundance of all spcies equate to a high or low evenness?
High evenness
167
If one handful of species dominate an ecosystem, is that low or high evenness
Low evenness
168
What is simpson's reciprocal index used for?
To describe and compare communities and assess the impact of human development on ecosystem in terms of biodiversity
169
What 3 things can low diversity indicate in a community
It can indicate poullution, eutrophication, or recent colonization
170
What is eutropihication?
When Algae is overgrown due to excess nutrients from fertilizer which blocks sunlight and drains oxygen from water
171
Why do disturbed sites often have artificially increased species richness?
Mixing of habitatas that are supposed to be seperate
172
How many species have been estimated?
5-100 million
173
How many mass extinctions have happened?
5
174
What is a mass extinction event?
When 75% of all species is wiped out in a short period of time
175
Which was the last mass extinction event?
The asteroid (chicxulub) that wiped out the dinosaurs
176
What is terrestial megafauna?
When an animal goes supersized
177
What are 4 reasons for high population growth in humans
1. Modern medicine and health care
2. agriculture and nutrituous food
3. Clean water
4. Better sanitation
178
What are the 6 reasons for the current biodiversity crisis?
1. human population growth
2. Hunting and other forms of exploitation
3. urbanization
4. deforestation and clearanceof land for agriculture
5. pollution and spread of disease
6. invasive species
179
What is an invasive species
Non-native organism that spreads aggressively and causes harm to the environment
180
What is in-situ conservation?
conservation that occurs within a natural habitat, conservation areas or nature reserves
181
What is rewilding?
Rewilding is a conservation approach that reintroduces native species back into their ecosystems to reclaim it
182
What is ex situ conservation?
Preserving species outside of natural habitats like zoos
183
What is phylogenetic diversity?
Measures evolutionary history represented by a set of species
Bio 11
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