Exam 2 Study Guides

Question 1

What are the two processes that regulate our sleep-wake cycle?

Answer 1

1. Circadian Rhythm
   -This is our internal biological clock that follows roughly a 24-hour cycle.
   It regulates when we feel alert or sleepy based on factors like light exposure, temperature, and hormone levels (especially melatonin).
2. Sleep Homeostasis
   -This tracks how long you’ve been awake and builds up “sleep pressure” the longer you stay awake.

Question 2

What does the Circadian Rhythms concept refer to? What’s the nature of the human natural circadian rhythm?

Answer 2

-body’s natural 24-hour cycles that control when we feel awake or sleepy (as well as other functions like body temperature and hormone release._

-slightly longer than 24 hours, adjusted each day by external cues—especially light—to stay in sync with the day-night cycle

Question 3

What are all of these and how do they relate?:

i. Adenosine
ii. Caffeine
iii. Melatonin
iv. Pineal Gland
v. Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
vi. Hypothalamus

Answer 3

Adenosine: Builds up during wakefulness → makes you sleepy.

Caffeine: Blocks adenosine → keeps you awake.

Melatonin: Sleep hormone → helps signal it’s time to sleep.

Pineal Gland: Produces melatonin.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN): Body’s master clock → controls circadian rhythm.
-tiny group of nerve cells
-in the hypothalamus
-receives light signals from eyes and uses to synchronize your circadian rhythm

Hypothalamus: Houses the SCN → regulates sleep, hunger, and body temperature.
-connect your body’s internal clock with body processes

Question 4

How does EEG work and how is it
different from other neuroimaging methods you’ve learned about in this course
(specifically fMRI, PET Scan, TMS)?

Answer 4

EEG places electrodes on scalp to measure electrical activity in the brain (the firing of neurons)
Records brain waves in real time, showing when different patterns of activity occur

EEG = great timing (when things happen)
fMRI/PET = great location (where things happen)
TMS = manipulates brain activity

Question 5

What states of consciousness are related to the following brain wave
frequencies: Alpha, Beta, Theta, Delta?

Answer 5

Beta waves: Alert, awake, and actively thinking — (not in sleep stage)

Alpha waves: Relaxed and calm but awake — often seen during rest or meditation, OR drifting into sleep (NREM Stage 1).

Theta waves: Dominate in NREM 1 and NREM 2 — light sleep

Delta waves: Deep sleep (NREM 3) — slowest waves, linked to restorative, dreamless sleep.

REM sleep: Brain activity looks more like beta waves — fast and active, similar to being awake, even though you’re dreaming

Question 6

What are the two main types of sleep?

Answer 6

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep:

Has three stages (NREM 1, 2, and 3).

Involves slower brain waves, relaxed muscles, and deeper rest.

Stage 3 (deep sleep) is the most restorative.

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep:

Brain is very active; most dreaming happens here.

Eyes move quickly under the eyelids.

Body is mostly paralyzed to prevent acting out dreams.

Question 7

What are the different stages of sleep and what are their brainwave signatures?

Answer 7

NREM 1: Light sleep → Theta waves

NREM 2: Deeper light sleep → Theta waves + sleep spindles

NREM 3: Deep sleep → Delta waves

REM: Dreaming sleep → Beta-like waves (similar to being awake)

Question 8

Typical sleep architecture during the night: how are the different stages of
sleep distributed over the night

Answer 8

Early night: More NREM 3 (deep sleep) — very restorative.

Later night: More REM sleep — longer dreams.

NREM 1 & 2: Occur throughout the night, especially at the start of each cycle.

Sleep cycles repeat every ~90 minutes: NREM 1 → NREM 2 → NREM 3 → REM, then start over.

Question 9

What have we learned from research on
the role of sleep for learning and memory?

Answer 9

Consolidating memories: Moving new information from short-term to long-term storage.

Improving recall: You remember things better after a good night’s sleep.

Supporting skill learning: Sleep helps with both facts (declarative memory) and skills (procedural memory).

Deep sleep (NREM 3): Especially important for fact-based memories.

REM sleep: Helps with creative thinking and problem-solving

Question 10

What types of sleep and sleep-
related neural processes support learning and memory?

Answer 10

NREM 3 (deep sleep): Consolidates facts and knowledge. most important for memory

REM sleep: Supports skills, creativity, and memory integration.

Sleep spindles (NREM 2): Strengthen memory connections.

Question 11

What is the
Hippocampal-Neocortical Dialog Model and how does it account for the
various findings of sleep effects on learning and memory?

Answer 11

Awake: hippocampus temporarily stores new memories
During NREM sleep: hippocampus replays these temp memories to the neocortex, where they become long-term memories

This model shows that:

-Deep sleep (NREM 3) improves declarative memory

-Sleep spindles strengthen the hippocampus-neocortex connection.

-REM sleep helps integrate and reorganize memories creatively*

Question 12

Which type of sleep has been found to support
creativity?

Answer 12

REM sleep — it supports creativity by helping the brain integrate and reorganize information.

Question 13

What has modern research
on dreaming revealed about some candidate functions of dreams?

Answer 13

basically you’re rehearsing real life experiences

Memory processing: Help organize and consolidate experiences and learning.

Emotional regulation: Allow safe processing of stress, fears, and emotions.

Problem-solving & creativity: Support creative thinking and finding new solutions.

Simulation of threats or scenarios: Prepare the brain for real-life challenges.

Question 14

What is our latest understanding of the
relationship between dreaming and sleep stages

Answer 14

Dreaming is not limited to REM, but REM sleep is the primary stage for complex, narrative dreams.
during NREM they can occur but are less vivid

Question 15

What have we learned from analyses of dream reports?

Answer 15

they give insight into the brain’s emotional and cognitive processing during sleep.

-often reflect recent experiences, concerns, and emotions.

-They tend to be emotionally intense and sometimes bizarre.

-Dream content can reveal patterns in thought, memory processing, and problem-solving.

-Nightmares often relate to stress or unresolved conflicts.

Question 16

What is meant by a dream’s manifest content and latent content?

Answer 16

Manifest: literal storyline of a dream (images, events)
Latent: hidden meaning of dream (desires, unconscious thoughts it represents)

Question 17

distinguish between Freud’s
Theory of dreaming and the Activation-Synthesis Model of dreaming

Answer 17

Freud sees dreams as meaningful, while Activation-Synthesis sees them as biological byproducts.

Freud’s Theory: Dreams reveal unconscious desires and wishes. The manifest content hides the latent content, which reflects hidden thoughts or impulses.

Activation-Synthesis Model: Dreams are the brain’s way of making sense of random neural activity during sleep. They don’t have inherent meaning—dreams are the brain trying to create a story from these signals.

Question 18

What are the neural correlates of
dreaming / REM sleep

Answer 18

During REM sleep / dreaming:

Active areas:

Visual cortex → we “see” vivid images in dreams

Limbic system → emotions and memory are strong

Motor cortex → brain gets ready to move, but body is paralyzed

Less active area:

Prefrontal cortex → less logic and reasoning → dreams can be weird or illogical

Brainstem: Controls REM cycles and keeps your body from moving while dreaming.

Basically: your imagination and emotions are on, but your logic is off, and your body stays still.

Question 19

Differentiate between and identify in
scenarios the main three memory processes:
a. Encoding
b. Storage
c. Retrieval

Answer 19

a. Encoding – Getting information into memory

Example: Studying a chapter in your textbook so your brain can store it later.

b. Storage – Keeping information in memory

Example: Remembering the chapter you studied a week later because it’s stored in your brain.

c. Retrieval – Accessing stored information

Example: Answering a test question by recalling what you studied.

Quick tip:

Encode → Store → Retrieve = Learn → Keep → Remember

Question 20

Distinguish between, identify in scenarios and
examples, and identify the neural correlates of the following types of encoding.
a. Semantic Encoding
b. Visual Imagery Encoding
c. Organizational Encoding

Answer 20

a. Semantic Encoding – learning meaning (e.g., Paris = capital of France) → left frontal & temporal lobes

b. Visual Imagery Encoding – learning with mental images (e.g., picturing grocery items) → occipital lobe

c. Organizational Encoding – learning by grouping info (e.g., sorting animals by type) → frontal lobe

Question 21

What do we know about what distinguishes the memories of Memory
Athletes from the average population?

Answer 21

They use mnemonic strategies like the method of loci (visualizing items in locations).

Their brains show more activity in visual and spatial areas (e.g., hippocampus) during memorization.

They excel at structured and associative encoding, turning abstract info into memorable patterns.

In short: technique and brain strategy, not raw memory, set them apart

Question 22

What do we know about what distinguishes the memories of individuals
with Highly-Superior Autobiographical Memory from the average
population

Answer 22

Effortless, detailed recall of personal life events, including dates and context

Strong links between memory and emotions

Brain differences: enlarged temporal lobe and caudate nucleus

Automatic ability, unlike memory athletes who use deliberate strategies

Question 23

What is meant by the Encoding-Specificity Principle and State-Dependent
Retrieval? What general idea do these two concepts portray

Answer 23

Encoding-Specificity Principle: Memory is best retrieved when cues at recall match the context or meaning during encoding.

Example: Learning words underwater → easier to recall them underwater.

State-Dependent Retrieval: Memory is better recalled when your internal state at retrieval matches your state during encoding.

Example: Studying while happy → easier to remember when happy.

Question 24

What have we learned about how retrieval can change memories? How
did the studies of test-enhanced learning work? How did the study on
retrieval-induced forgetting work

Answer 24

Retrieval changes memories: Recalling can update, strengthen, or distort them.

Test-enhanced learning: Actively recalling info (testing) improves long-term memory more than rereading.

Retrieval-induced forgetting: Retrieving some items can suppress related unpracticed info, making it harder to recall.

Question 25

How did Sperling’s classic study on Sensory Memory work? What were the results and how did it reveal the existence of a Sensory Memory store

Answer 25

How it worked: Participants briefly saw a grid of 12 letters (3 rows × 4 columns). Whole report condition: Asked to recall all letters → most recalled ~4–5 letters. Partial report condition: A tone indicated which row to report immediately after the display → participants could recall almost all letters in that row. Results: Showed that participants initially saw all letters, but the information faded very quickly before they could report it. Conclusion: Revealed the existence of Sensory Memory: a very brief, high-capacity store that holds visual (iconic) or auditory (echoic) information for a fraction of a second

Question 26

What is the difference between Iconic and Echoic Sensory Memory? What time-scales do they operate on

Answer 26

Iconic memory: Visual sensory memory → holds images for ~0.5 seconds. Echoic memory: Auditory sensory memory → holds sounds for ~2–4 seconds

Question 27

a. What is the capacity limit of short-term memory? b. What brain region has been implicated in human short-term memory

Answer 27

Capacity limit: Short-term memory can hold about 7 ± 2 items (5–9 items) at once. Brain region: Prefrontal cortex

Question 28

distinguish Explicit / Declarative Memory from Implicit / Non- Declarative Memory; be able to identify which types of memories are part of the Explicit and Implicit Memory systems

Answer 28

Explicit / Declarative Memory: Conscious memory of facts and events Types: Episodic memory: Personal experiences (e.g., your last birthday) Semantic memory: Facts and knowledge (e.g., capital of France) Implicit / Non-Declarative Memory: Unconscious memory, often shown through performance Types: Procedural memory: Skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike) Priming: Exposure influences response to later stimuli Classical conditioning: Learned associations

Question 29

Be able to distinguish between the following types of memories in definitions, examples and in vignettes: Priming, Procedural Memory, Episodic Memory, and Semantic Memory

Answer 29

Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences later response without conscious awareness. Example: Seeing the word “yellow” makes you faster to recognize “banana.” Vignette: After reading a story about the beach, you more quickly identify the word “sand” in a word game. Procedural Memory: Memory for skills and actions. Example: Riding a bike or playing piano. Vignette: You can type on a keyboard without looking, even after years away. Episodic Memory: Memory for personal experiences and events. Example: Remembering your last birthday party. Vignette: You recall the sights, sounds, and feelings of your first day at college. Semantic Memory: Memory for facts and general knowledge. Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France. Vignette: You answer a trivia question about the tallest mountain in the world

Question 30

Distinguish between the two main kinds of Amnesia, and the types of brain damage that lead to each. a. Retrograde Amnesia b. Anterograde Amnesia

Answer 30

Retrograde Amnesia: Can’t remember past memories; often from temporal lobe damage. Anterograde Amnesia: Can’t form new memories; usually from hippocampus damage.

Question 31

What were the types of memory that HM did and did not have trouble with? What were the studies / tasks to illustrate this? What do these studies say about the role of the Hippocampus in memory? What do these studies say about what types of memories require the Hippocampus?

Answer 31

HM couldn’t: Form new explicit/declarative memories (episodic & semantic) → tested with story recall, word lists, new faces HM could: Learn implicit/procedural memories → tested with mirror-tracing task Hippocampus role: Needed for new conscious memories, not for skills or implicit memory

Question 32

What are the neural mechanisms thought to support Procedural Memory? What are the neural mechanisms thought to support Priming?

Answer 32

Procedural Memory: Supported by basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex → involved in learning skills and habits. Priming: Supported by neocortex (sensory and association areas) → exposure to a stimulus unconsciously influences later responses

Question 33

Seven sins of Memory and their classification. exs?

Answer 33

Omission (3): a. Transience -forgetting over time -forgetting last week's hw b. Absentmindedness -lapses in attention -forgetting your keys c. Blocking -temp inability to retrieve info -recalling actor's name Commission (4): d. Memory Misattribution -remembering info but confusing the source -thinking a dream actually happened e. Suggestibility -incorporating misleading info from others -remembering false detail from someone else's story f. Bias -memories altered by current beliefs or knowledge -remembering past opinions as closer to your current views (attitude during election vs looking back) g. Persistence -unwanted, intrusive memoires -flashbacks of traumatic event

Question 34

What is the neural underpinning for why emotional memories persist?

Answer 34

bc of interaction between amygdala and hippocampus Amygdala: Detects emotional significance and enhances memory consolidation. Hippocampus: Stores the context and details of the memory. Strong emotional arousal → stress hormones (like adrenaline) further strengthen the memory, making it more vivid and long-lasting. Key idea: Emotion tags memories as important, so the brain prioritizes storage and retrieval.

Question 35

What are Flashbulb Memories and what do we know about the accuracy of our Flashbulb Memories?

Answer 35

Flashbulb Memories: Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant or surprising events (e.g., 9/11, personal trauma). Accuracy: People feel high confidence in them. Studies show they can still be inaccurate or distorted over time, even though they feel clear. Emotional arousal makes them memorable, but not perfectly reliable

Question 36

classical vs operant conditioning and the famous behaviorists linked to them

Answer 36

Classical Conditioning: Learning by association between two stimuli. Behaviorists: Ivan Pavlov, John Watson Operant Conditioning: Learning by consequences (rewards/punishments). Behaviorists: Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner

Question 37

Define these aspects of Classical Conditioning: i. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) ii. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) iii. Neutral Stimulus iv. Unconditioned Response (UR) v. Conditioned Response (CR)

Answer 37

Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response. Example: Food → salivation Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural response to the US. Example: Salivation to food Neutral Stimulus (NS): Doesn’t trigger the response initially. Example: Bell BEFORE learning Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral, now triggers a response after learning. Example: Bell after pairing with food Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS. Example: Salivation to the bell

Question 38

Distinguish between the following Classical Conditioning phenomena: i. Extinction ii. Spontaneous Recovery iii. Second-Order Conditioning iv. Generalization

Answer 38

Extinction: The CS no longer triggers the CR after repeated presentation without the US. Spontaneous Recovery: The CR returns after a pause, even without new learning. Second-Order Conditioning: A new NS becomes a CS by being paired with an already established CS. Generalization: The CR occurs to stimuli similar to the original CS.

Question 39

1. contingency vs contiguity 2. findings from Rescorla and Wagner’s study (on the role of contingency vs. contiguity in learning)

Answer 39

Contiguity: CS and US occur close together in time. Contingency: CS predicts the US reliably (CS signals the likelihood of US). Rescorla & Wagner (1972) finding: Contingency matters more than contiguity. Learning is stronger when the CS predicts the US, even if they sometimes occur apart. Just pairing CS and US closely in time (contiguity) isn’t enough for strong learning Contiguity (time-based): Example: Every time you hear a bell, food appears immediately. The bell and food happen close together in time. Contingency (predictability-based): Example: The bell only sometimes predicts food, or another bell always predicts food. Learning is stronger when the bell reliably signals that food is coming.

Question 40

Who conducted the famous Classical Conditioning study with Dogs? Who conducted the famous Classical Conditioning study of Fear Conditioning in an infant (i.e., the Little Albert study)

Answer 40

Dogs study: Ivan Pavlov – salivating dogs experiment Little Albert study: John Watson – conditioned fear in an infant

Question 41

Identify / distinguish these: i. Positive Reinforcement ii. Negative Reinforcement iii. Positive Punishment iv. Negative Punishment

Answer 41

Positive Reinforcement: Add something good to increase behavior Example: Giving a child candy for doing homework → homework increases Negative Reinforcement: Remove something bad to increase behavior Example: Turning off a loud alarm when you wake up → getting up becomes more likely Positive Punishment: Add something bad to decrease behavior Example: Scolding a child for misbehaving → misbehavior decreases Negative Punishment: Take away something good to decrease behavior Example: Taking away a toy for breaking rules → misbehavior decreases

Question 42

What is meant by Thorndike’s Law of Effect

Answer 42

Behaviors that produce satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. Behaviors that produce unpleasant outcomes are less likely to be repeated

Question 43

What is meant by the Intermittent Reinforcement Effect

Answer 43

Behaviors reinforced only some of the time are more resistant to extinction than behaviors reinforced every time ex: A slot machine pays out only occasionally → people keep playing longer than if it paid every time.

Question 44

What is the difference between the following schedules of reinforcement: i. Fixed-Interval ii. Variable-Interval iii. Fixed-Ratio iv. Variable-Ratio

Answer 44

Time-Based Schedules: Fixed-Interval (FI): Reward after a set time → e.g., paycheck every 2 weeks Variable-Interval (VI): Reward after varying time → e.g., checking email Response-Based Schedules: Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reward after a set number of responses → e.g., buy 10 coffees, get 1 free Variable-Ratio (VR): Reward after unpredictable number of responses → e.g., slot machines

Question 45

3 Limits to Conditioning and explain

Answer 45

a. Latent Learning -passive -without immediate reinforcement or reward -Limitation: hard to measure until behavior is tested; learning may not be immediately observable. b. Cognitive Maps -Mental map of environment that guides behavior -Limitation: can be inaccurate c. Taste Aversion & Biological Preparedness -Evolved tendency to associate certain stimuli with consequences. Example: Avoiding food that made you sick -Limitation: learning is biased toward biologically relevant stimuli, limiting what can be easily learned.

Question 46

How is observational learning different from Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?

Answer 46

Observational Learning: Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior. Classical Conditioning: Learning by association between stimuli. Operant Conditioning: Learning by consequences (rewards/punishments).

Question 47

What did we learn from Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll study?

Answer 47

Observational learning occurs through imitation. Direct reinforcement is not necessary for learning. Children can learn social behaviors by watching models.

Question 48

What are 3 things we about the neural correlates of observational learning?

Answer 48

1. Mirror neurons: Fire both when performing an action and when observing someone else perform it → helps understand and imitate actions. 2. Motor cortex: Activated during observation → prepares the brain for potential imitation. 3. Prefrontal cortex: Involved in planning, attention, and understanding intentions of others.

Question 49

What are the neural correlates of implicit learning and how are they different from those of explicit learning?

Answer 49

Implicit Learning (unconscious, skill-based): BCM -Basal ganglia, cerebellum, and motor cortex → involved in skills, habits, and procedural memory Explicit Learning (conscious, fact-based, requires attention): HT Hippocampus and medial temporal lobe → involved in episodic and semantic memory

Question 50

What is the Implicit Association Test and how does it work?

Answer 50

Measures unconscious biases by timing how quickly people categorize paired concepts (e.g., Flower/Good vs. Insect/Bad). Faster responses = stronger implicit associations.