Describe the three perspectives on the problem of sensory coding.
- specificity coding: the representation of a specific stimulus by the firing of neurons that respond only to that stimulus
- population coding: neural representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons
- sparse coding: neural coding based on the pattern of activity in small groups of neurons
Explain the difference between functional connectivity and structural connectivity.
Structural connectivity refers to the physical connections between different brain regions, established through neural pathways; it is the brain’s wiring diagram created by nerve axons that connect different brain regions. Functional connectivity refers to the extent to which the neural activity in separate brain areas is correlated with each other.
Explain how perception is invisible to us but it is not automatic.
Perception is considered “invisible” to us because we are not typically aware of the complex mental processes happening behind the scenes when we interpret sensory information. but it is not automatic as our perceptions are actively influenced by our past experiences, expectations, emotions, and context.
Compare and contrast the four Conceptions of Object Perception (unconscious inference, Gestalt laws, environmental regularities, and Bayesian inference). How do these ideas differ? In what ways are they similar?
While all four conceptions of object perception (unconscious inference, Gestalt laws, environmental regularities, and Bayesian inference) aim to explain how we perceive objects by integrating sensory information with prior knowledge, they differ in their emphasis on the specific mechanisms involved and the level of detail considered when making inferences about the world. unconscious focuses on past experiences, gestalt focuses on organizational properties, environmental regularities focuses on particular patterns seen in the environment, and bayesian focuses on probability of an outcome
Describe the concept of semanticization of remote memories. Give examples across time to support your thinking.
Semanticization of remote memories is the process in which a detailed, personal episodic memory from the distant past gradually loses its specific sensory and contextual details over time. As this happens, it transforms into a more generalized, factual representation that resembles semantic memory, essentially becoming a piece of general knowledge about one’s life rather than a vivid recollection of a specific event. An example is you remember having birthday parties but not remembering the theme of them
Describe Atkinson and Shiffrin’s concept of control processes. Then, give two examples of control processes to support your thinking.
The atkinson and shiffrin’s concept of control processes is that we can control active processes. Examples are rehearsal, which makes memories or facts in the short term memory stay longer and be able to recall it better, and strategies to make stimulus more memorable by using techniques like chunking (a way to remember things in chunks by referencing them to other things)
Define source monitoring errors and describe some research that illustrates them. Then explain why these errors reinforce the characterization of memory as being “constructive.”
Source monitoring errors occur when someone incorrectly attributes a memory to the wrong source. Source monitoring errors demonstrate that when retrieving a memory, individuals actively reconstruct the details of an experience by drawing on various sources of information, including their current knowledge and beliefs, which can lead to inaccuracies in source attribution.
Compare and contrast functional fixedness and mental set. Give examples of each in the context of problem solving to support your thinking.
Functional fixedness and mental set are both cognitive biases that can hinder problem solving but the key difference is in their focus. Functional fixedness specifically relates to the inability to see alternative uses for an object due to its perceived primary function, whereas a mental set refers to a persistent approach to a problem based on past experiences, even when it might not be the most effective strategy in a new situation. An example of functional fixedness in the context of problem solving might be that you are trying to loosen a screw but don’t have a screwdriver. You might not think to use something else like a key because you primarily associate keys with unlocking doors. An example of mental set in problem solving would be that you always put together and solve puzzles in a certain pattern and might get stuck when that pattern does not apply to a new puzzle.
Describe the prototype approach to categorization. Define “prototype” and give examples for the category of “clothing.”
The prototype approach to categorization states that people categorize objects by comparing them to a mental representation of the typical or ideal example of that category which is called a prototype (a mental model of a category that represents the most typical or characteristic example of that category, acting as a reference point for judging whether other items belong to the same group). In other words, we judge whether something belongs to a category based on how similar it is to the representative image. For example, when a person thinks of a t-shirt as a prototype for dressing casually or blue jeans as a prototype for pants.
Compare and contrast myside bias and confirmation bias. Give an example of each concept to support your thinking.
The key difference between the two lies in the emphasis on actively seeking information that supports one’s own side (myside bias) versus simply interpreting information in a way that confirms pre-existing beliefs (confirmation bias). Myside bias focuses more on the selective search for evidence, while confirmation bias highlights the biased interpretation of that evidence once found. An example of myside bias would be only searching for articles that support your opinion rather than presenting both sides. An example of confirmation bias would be interpreting results as direct evidence of success rather than examining all factors that might have led to success.
What is top-down processing, and three examples
perception is guided by prior knowledge, expectations, experiences, context, or goals, Your brain uses what it already knows to interpret incoming sensory information.
- Reading a Sentence with Missing or Scrambled Letters
- Wrong container
- Looking at a table of phones and recognizing which is mine
What is bottom-up processing, and three examples
perception starts with raw sensory input, which is then built up step-by-step into a meaningful percept, No prior knowledge needed
- Trying to identify an object i have never seen before
- Hearing a loud sound and turning my head to see what caused it
- Walking around and having a bright light shine in my face and block to see what is causing it
