What is the top down offender profiling
Uses pre-existing templates of different types of offender (organised/disorganised). Information from the crime is used to fit the offender into one of the pre-existing categories.
Describe the process of creating the top down offender profile
Crime Context (Profiling inputs) – gather victim information, background crime context.
Type of murder (Decision Process Model) – consider type of murder (mass, serial, killing spree), time, location factors
Crime Assessment – use previous information to establish whether offender is organised or disorganised (crime scene characteristics)
Criminal Profile – use organised or disorganised plus previous information to put together a profile (likely personality and behaviour)
Report Writing – report presented to police
Apprehension – review profile again once suspect has been apprehended, review accuracy to improve.
Organised offender
Disorganised offender
Give the crime scene characteristics and likely personality/ behaviour for both
What are the two types of profiling in bottom up
Investigative Profiling
Geographical Profiling
Bottom up offender profiling investigative profiling (AO1)
Data-driven approach. Makes use of statistical data on similar crimes that have been committed, in order to make predictions about the characteristics of an offender.
Interpersonal Coherence:- behaviour consistent across crimes and situations.
Forensic Awareness: - Behaviour does change as they develop knowledge of forensics. Adapt and improve. Suggestions preconvictions if offender shows evidence of hiding forensics.
Smallest Space Analysis:- Statistical analysis of DATA!
For stranger murders in UK; looked at 48 crime scenes; interviewed murderers in each case; CORRELATED type of offender to data gathered at the crime scene. Multiple correlations.
3 types of offender: instrumental opportunistic; instrumental cognitive; expressive impulsive;
Bottom up offender profiling geographical profiling (AO1)
Geographical profiling: Based on the principle of spatial consistency.
Routine activity theory- offenders will restrict their work to areas they are familiar with (schemas)
Circle theory – A circle drawn to encompass all the crimes in a series is likely to contain the offender’s base
Marauders: Offenders who commit crimes in close proximity to their home base
Commuters: Offenders who travel a distance away from their usual residence but commit crimes with a defined space
Improvements through CGT (Computerised Geographical Targeting) – 3D mapping, terrain, time and mode of transport.
Biological explanations: historical approach (Atavistic = Lombroso) AO1
Just explain
Offenders are primitive = ‘atavistic’
Genetic throwbacks: Lower evolutionary development
Savage and untamed nature means they cannot fit in with society and would inevitably turn to crime. Lower moral standards-engage in offending to satisfy own immediate needs.
Biological explanations: historical approach (Atavistic = Lombroso) AO1
Study
Atavistic traits:- large sloping brow, dark skin, hairiness, stigmata, large jaw, large ears, insensitivity to pain. Sex offenders = thick lips and protruding ears; murderers = bloodshot eyes, curly hair.
Sample = 383 Italian criminal skull and 4500 live criminals.
21% had one atavistic trait; 45% had 5 or more atavistic traits
What are the three Modern biological explanations
Genetics
Neurochemistry
Neurophysiology
Genetics (AO1)
XYY explanation
Addition of extra Y chromosome
High levels of testosterone – more masculine features, taller and muscular.
Psychological issues including emotional immaturity, poor socialization, instability, low frustration levels, extreme aggressiveness, inadequate control of impulses.
Genetics (AO1)
Candidate gene
Candidate gene: Any gene suspected of being implicated in a particular trait
MAOA-L mutation ‘Warrior Gene’
Low serotonin in the PFC– linked to impulsivity
High dopamine – linked to rewarding aggression & increased perception of threats in the amygdala
CDH-13:
13 x more likely to have history of violence.
High dopamine – linked to rewarding aggression & increased perception of threats in the amygdala
Genetics (AO1)
Epigenetics
Epigenetics: child environmental factors, e.g. child abuse turn off the MAOA and switch on the CDH-13 genes. These develop more dopamine and reduce serotonin, it makes the person more impulsive and aggressive, they then are more likely to have more negative life events, e.g. physical abuse (e.g. fights).
Neurochemistry AO1
Dopamine: High levels in limbic system (reward neurotransmitter, excitatory). Reinforcing the aggression.
Serotonin: Low levels in Pre frontal cortex (lack of decision making, long term consequences) – more impulsive (e.g. considering the short term benefits). This is inhibitory and slows down the brain activity.
Noradrenaline: High levels. Flight and fight. (overactive SAM system). Offenders are using the fight behaviour. Perceiving threats in their environment which are not. Excitatory.
Neurophysiology AO1
Limbic System: emotional regulation and regulation of hormones. Increased dopamine in this area may reinforcing the use of aggression.
Amygdala (in limbic system) – fear response, recognising fear in others. Lower activity found may result in fearlessness, HABs.
Pre frontal cortex – involved in consequential thinking, planning and decision making. Lower activity in this area linked to loss of self control and altered emotion.
Identify the psychological explanations
Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality
Cognitive Explanations (Cognitive Distortions and Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg))
Differential Association Theory
Psychodynamic Explanations (Freud, maternal depravation)
Eysenck’s theory of criminal personality (AO1)
Nature & Nurture: Biological basis for personality types (see below) but also these personality types make them harder to condition; they don’t learn from the consequences of their actions, lack of concern for others means are less amenable to social norms and are less sensitive to negative consequences.
Criminal Personality is Extrovert, Neurotic & Psychotic
Extraversion
Underactive nervous system – thrill seekers as lack stimulation
Offending is risk taking and thrill seeking as dangerous activities
Neuroticism
Overactive nervous system – flight and fight response
Offender perceive threats and fight when behaviour is non-threatening.
Psychoticism
High levels of testosterone in males
Lack of empathy, impulsivity and aggressive in offenders
What are the Cognitive explanations of offending
Cognitive Distortions
Hostile Attribution Bias
Minimalisation
Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg)
Cognitive distortions (AO1)
Irrational or faulty thinking
Hostile Attribution Bias (HAB)
Misinterpreting cues
Perceiving behaviour as a threat; when behaviour is innocent.
Lead to an aggressive response or aating to defend themselves (flight & fight)
E.g. Accidently hitting someone with your shoulder walking past, seen as starting a fight.
Minimalisation
Downplaying responsibility for the offence
Reduce feelings of guilt for own actions
Putting the blame onto the victim
E.g. if they hadn’t of worn those clothes…
Moral Reasoning (AO1)
Pre-conventional = offender
Lack of perspective taking (self only)
Punishment: What is moral depends on punishment
Reward: What is moral depends on what the person gains
Conventional
Some perspective taking (some self)
Good boy & Good Girl: What is moral depends on what others think
Law & Order: What is moral considering social order and laws
Post-conventional
Social contract: What is moral based on how society is affected
Ethical Principal Stage: What is moral based on your self chosen ethical principles valued higher than the law
Differential association theory (AO1)
Criminal behaviour is learned from association with intimate personal groups
Criminal behaviour is learned through the same processes as any other behaviour. E.g. prison being a ‘school of crime’
People learn techniques and attitudes towards crime from those around them
If the number of favourable (pro-crime) attitudes outweigh unfavourable (anti-crime) ones, then a person becomes an offender.
Differential associations may vary in priority (importance of role model), frequency (how often you see them), duration (how long you see them for) and intensity (higher status, more learning that takes place).
General ‘need’ (e.g. for money, poverty, class) is not sufficient explanation for crime because not everyone with those needs turned to crime.
Maternal Deprivation (MD)
Explanation and study
Separation from maternal caregiver during sensitive period.
14/44 thieves had affectionless psychopathy
12/14 affectionless psychopaths had MD (mother responsible for emotional development)
2/44 non-criminals had MD.
Without a stable maternal figure than the child is likely to become an ‘affectionless psychopath’
Lack of empathy, guilt or feelings for others, impulsive & frequently lie. This has been associated with criminality
Explain the types of superego
Weak/Underdeveloped superego: absent same-sex parent (cannot resolve fear of castration; by taking on same-sex morals/attitudes; weak morals = offending) Person under ID control.
Harsh/Overdeveloped superego: strict same-sex parent (excessive guilt; use offending as a deserved punishment)
Deviant superego: criminal same-sex parent (superego similar to ID; deviant morals and attitudes – pro crime).
Recidivism rates ao1
Definition: conviction for an offence within 2 years after release.
Reoffending rate is approx 28.9% (2024)
Reasons;
Institutionalisation
Mental health & addition
Lack of support
Adult offenders had reoffending rates of approx. 28.8% (2024)
Juvenile offenders, reoffending rates of approx 31.4% (young offenders more impulsive) (2024)
Adults released from custodial sentences less than 12 months, reoffending rates 66%. (2024)
Recidivism rates ao3
Data suggests longer sentences are more effective than short sentences (less time to rehabilitate in prison?)
The recidivism rates only include 2 years after release from prison. Any offending after 2 yrs is not included.
Actual rates of recidivism could be higher than what the data shows (only people who have been caught), therefore we may believe custodial sentences to be more effective than they actually are.
Recidivism data does not distinguish the type of offence, e.g. violent, sexual or non-violent.
68% of offenders who have had no visits during prison go on to reoffend Is enough done to maintain relationships with the outside world?
Economic implications – reoffending cost £18.1bn in 2019.
102 Australian male offenders interviewed. They felt unsupported upon release and said that a greater level of accessible resources, treatment and/or support services after release would help reduce their recidivism
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Schizophrenia28
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Schizophrenia evaluations8
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Forensics34
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Forensics evaluation16
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Cognition and Development9
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Issues and Debates19
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Issues and Debates examples12
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Research Methods!89
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Biopsychology29
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Biopsychology evaluations7
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Approaches45
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Approaches evaluation9
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Attachments26
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Social Influence22
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Social influence evaluations11
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Attachment evaluations11
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Psychopathology31
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Psychopathology evaluations11
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Memory34
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Research Methods52
