Global quick notes III

Question 1

5

Enforcement Challenges & Sovereignty
Cultural Traditions:

Answer 1

• No universal human rights standard; Western liberal values differ from other cultural/religious traditions.
• Many countries criminalize homosexuality, contrasting with Western equality rights.
• Asian values emphasize social duty over individual rights.
• Muslim countries follow Islamic law, often conflicting with Universal Declaration principles.
• Russia’s Orthodox Christian influence shapes conservative policies on human rights.

Question 2

5

Enforcement Challenges & Sovereignty
State Sovereignty

Answer 2

• Universal Declaration is “soft law” without enforcement power.
• States decide whether to accept external jurisdiction.
• Example: UK breaches European Convention by denying prisoner voting rights.
• ICC unpopular in Africa, seen as biased and neo-colonial.
• UN’s International Court of Justice (ICJ) rulings are non-binding, respecting sovereignty.

Question 3

5

Powerful States and Accountability

Answer 3

• Powerful states often ignore international human rights law when inconvenient.
• Russia refuses cooperation on MH17 investigation; US resists closing Guantanamo Bay. Drone strikes causing civilian deaths highlight lack of accountability.
• Post-9/11 US counterterrorism involved human rights abuses (torture, indefinite detention).
• Political leaders (e.g., Cheney, Trump) have justified controversial tactics.
• Powerful states undermine universal application of human rights through selective enforcement.

Question 3

2

United Nations Security Council (UNSC)

Answer 3

• Lack of condemnation on Crimea:
  Russia’s annexation of Crimea violated Ukraine’s sovereignty. However, Russia, as a permanent UNSC member, vetoed condemnation efforts.
• General Assembly vs Security Council:
  While the UN General Assembly condemned the annexation, its resolutions are non-binding, limiting real impact.

Question 4

2

UN War Crimes Tribunals

Answer 4

• 1990s context:
  With the Cold War over, the UNSC supported creating war crimes tribunals to address genocide and crimes against humanity.
• Successes:
  Countries’ cooperation enabled these tribunals to achieve significant convictions.

Question 5

5

Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Answer 5

• Impact:
  The ICTY has convicted many individuals for war crimes in the 1990s Balkan conflicts, advancing international accountability.
• Justice for victims:
  The tribunal claims to have given a voice to victims and reinforced that individuals can be held internationally accountable.
• Notable trials:
  Radovan Karadzic (40 years) and Ratko Mladic (life) convicted for Srebrenica massacre.
• Criticism:
  Accused of bias as most convicted are Serbs and Croats. Russia alleges Western bias, but tribunal responds that these groups committed most crimes.
• Reconciliation:
  While the tribunal achieved justice, it has struggled to foster reconciliation between ethnic communities.

Question 6

2

Rwanda Tribunal (ICTR)

Answer 6

• Work:
  Convicted 55 individuals including former Hutu PM Jean Kambanda for 1994 genocide (around 1 million Tutsi victims).
• Criticism:
  Did not prosecute alleged Tutsi atrocities after the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front took power.

Question 7

3

Achievements of UN War Crime Tribunals

Answer 7

• Provided retribution for crimes.
• Laid a basis for reconciliation (though limited).
• Established that heads of government can be tried internationally.

Question 8

4

European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)

Answer 8

• Role:
  Established 1951, it adjudicates cases under the European Convention on Human Rights.
• Limitations:
  Relies on states’ cooperation; countries can defy rulings without direct consequences.
• Examples:

UK derogated from Article 5 after 9/11, allowing indefinite detention of foreign terrorist suspects.

UK currently defies ECHR by denying prisoner voting rights and allowing life imprisonment considered inhuman treatment.

Russia’s 2015 law prioritizes national law over ECHR rulings.

• Nature of power:
  ECHR has “soft persuasive power” rather than coercive force.

Question 9

3

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

Answer 9

• Function:
  Mediates disputes between states.
• Challenges:

Rulings are advisory, not binding; states can ignore them (e.g., Israel ignoring ruling on West Bank wall; China ignoring South China Sea ruling).

Lacks enforcement powers unlike WTO sanctions.

• Successes:
  Maintains international prestige, influencing states to comply (e.g., Japan and whaling ruling).

Question 9

4

Environmental Philosophy: Shallow vs Deep Ecology (Arne Naess)
Deep/Radical Ecology:

Answer 9

• Calls for substantial emission reductions.
• Rejects industrialism and capitalism.
• Emphasizes biocentric equality and ecological consciousness.
• Advocates for zero growth and small, self-sufficient communities.

Question 9

3

Environmental Philosophy: Shallow vs Deep Ecology (Arne Naess)
Shallow/Reformist Ecology:

Answer 9

• Accepts modest greenhouse gas targets.
• Supports economic growth with “green capitalism” and technology.
• Values environment instrumentally, aiming for sustainability within current systems.

Question 10

3

Environmental Challenges: Free Riders & Negotiations

Answer 10

• Free rider problem:
  Some actors pollute but avoid paying cleanup costs, undermining global efforts.
• Reciprocity principle:
  Progress requires all countries to participate, but costs borne now benefit future generations, making compliance hard.
• Example:
  Kyoto Protocol failed partly due to US non-participation and China’s free-riding.

Question 11

3

Garrett Hardin’s “Tragedy of the Commons”

Answer 11

• Concept:
  Common resources are overused because individuals act in self-interest without bearing full costs, causing depletion.
• Implications:
  Explains why environmental problems are hard to solve.
• Solutions suggested:

Exploit and move on: no longer viable due to lack of new resources.

Privatization: assigning property rights so owners manage resources sustainably.

Norms, rules, regulations: controversial but necessary to limit overuse, though enforcement and fairness remain issues.

Question 12

4

Environmental Issues and Climate Change:

Answer 12

• Environmental problems include acid rain, fish stock depletion, but climate change due to greenhouse gas emissions has recently gained the most international attention.
• The IPCC, established in 1988, confirms global warming is happening, with serious consequences like rising sea levels and droughts expected.
• This creates tensions between developed and developing countries:
• Developed nations historically emit the most greenhouse gases. Developing countries suffer the worst effects, such as flooding in Bangladesh and water stress in Africa.
  Developing countries demand compensation; developed countries have promised some funds but avoid legal liability.

Question 12

4

Developing Countries’ Perspective:

Answer 12

• Countries like China and India argue it’s unfair to limit their emissions because their per capita emissions are still low compared to developed countries.
• This stance has slowed progress on binding emission cuts (e.g., Kyoto Protocol excluded developing countries).
• The US used this as a reason not to act, fearing economic disadvantage.
• Recently, some developing countries acknowledge climate risks, e.g., China’s smog problem has forced environmental attention.

Question 13

3

Scientific Views on Global Warming:

Answer 13

• Until the 1970s, scientists worried about global cooling, but since the 1980s, consensus shifted toward global warming.
• Debate remains over causes, severity, and consequences of warming.
• Climate change is complicated by the state-centric nature of international relations and involvement of non-state actors like corporations.

Question 14

3

Environmental Pessimists vs. Optimists:

Answer 14

• Pessimists: Warn of significant warming (1–5°C by 2100), melting ice caps, rising seas, and more extreme weather.
• Optimists: Argue Earth has natural climate cycles; some areas (e.g., northern Britain, Canada) may benefit from warming; some question CO2’s impact.
• Varied scientific opinion has hampered global agreement, though awareness and action have increased (e.g., bans on incandescent bulbs).

Question 15

5

Challenges in Global Cooperation:

Answer 15

• Tragedy of the Commons: Shared resources (oceans, air) are overused since no global agency enforces limits.

Example: Collapse of North Atlantic fishery; Amazon deforestation due to national economic interests.

• Free Rider Problem: Some countries benefit from others’ climate efforts without contributing (e.g., US, China).
• Economic growth pressures make governments reluctant to impose costly climate measures, especially near elections.
• Lack of grassroots understanding and engagement, especially in developing countries, limits political will.
• NGOs have limited influence; global society remains nation-state focused, complicating unified action.

Question 16

4

Views on Radical Action to Solve Climate Change:

Arguments against radical action:

Answer 16

• Environmentalism sometimes seen as hysteria fueled by media.
• Radical policies may serve political show rather than effective solutions.
• Reformist ecologists advocate adaptation over mitigation, pointing to opportunities in climate change (e.g., new habitable lands).
• Capitalism could evolve (“Capitalism 2.0”) to foster green innovation, with market forces driving renewable energy and sustainability.

Question 17

4

Views on Radical Action to Solve Climate Change:
Arguments for radical action:

Answer 17

• Radical ecologists warn current international efforts (Kyoto, Copenhagen, etc.) are insufficient.
• Temperature rises beyond 2–3°C risk catastrophic impacts; predicted rises could reach 6.4°C.
• Technological fixes and market solutions are often inadequate or costly.
• Weak emission reduction commitments and ineffective carbon trading show need for stronger measures.

Question 18

4

Conclusion: ecology

Answer 18

• The divide between radical and reformist ecologists centers on how severe the climate problem is and the best solutions.
• Radical ecologists demand fundamental economic and ideological change.
• Reformists prefer pragmatic adaptation, technological innovation, and market-based approaches.
• Many radical solutions seem impractical; reformist strategies offer realistic paths forward by balancing human ingenuity and environmental care.

Question 19

2

Globalisation and Regionalism

Answer 19

• Globalisation: Increasing interconnectedness of global economies, cultures, and politics driven by international economic activity.
• Regionalism: Rising levels of regional social and economic exchange.

There are two main views on their relationship:

Regionalism is part of globalisation or a step towards it.

Regionalism is a reaction or challenge to globalisation.

Question 20

4

Viewpoint 1: Regionalism as Part of Globalisation

Answer 20

• Regionalism reflects globalisation through regional organisations (e.g., Mercosur, NAFTA).
• These groups adopt free trade and capital/labor mobility to stay competitive globally.
• Regionalism helps accommodate global capitalism while allowing political management at a regional level.
• Example: Job losses in the US due to Mexican manufacturing reflect globalisation more than just regionalism.

Question 20

# 5 Viewpoint 2: Regionalism as a Reaction to Globalisation

Answer 20

- Regionalism grows as nations seek “safe harbors” from global economic unpredictability. - Example: The EU protects its farmers via subsidies (Common Agricultural Policy), resisting free market forces. - ASEAN supports smaller Southeast Asian countries against larger neighbors like China and Japan. - Political integration may protect declining global powers (e.g., UK, France) through EU representation. - Regionalism can shield national interests in a globalising world.

Question 20

# 6 EU Expansion and Functioning

Answer 20

- The EU has expanded to include many Central and Eastern European countries, nearing Russia’s border. - Expansion complicates decision-making (27 members now). - Some Eastern European countries resent pressure from Western Europe. - The EU mixes supranational institutions (e.g., Commission, Parliament) with intergovernmental control (e.g., European Council). - Key decisions on sovereignty issues (foreign policy, defense) still require unanimity; others use Qualified Majority Voting (QMV). - The EU allows member states to retain significant control; no full sovereignty loss.

Question 21

# 2 EU’s Structure and Challenges

Answer 21

- Supranational elements: Commission administers policies (e.g., CAP, trade). Parliament has increased legislative power. European Court of Justice can overrule national laws. - Intergovernmental elements: National governments dominate key decisions. Veto powers remain in crucial areas. The EU President is appointed by member states, often a low-profile figure. The UK’s departure (Brexit) shows states can leave the EU.

Question 22

# 5 EU’s Role in the World

Answer 22

- Biggest economic trading bloc. - Leads proactive climate change initiatives (e.g., Cap & Trade). - Has formal EU leadership roles (President of the European Council, Foreign Affairs spokesperson). - However, lacks military/strategic capabilities — NATO remains key. - EU struggles with foreign policy unity due to member state divisions.

Question 23

# 6 Federation vs. EU Reality

Answer 23

- Federation involves central government with sovereignty over defense/foreign policy. - The EU has moved somewhat toward federation (shared currency, supranational institutions) but is not a true federation. - Eurozone countries share monetary policy via the European Central Bank. Banking Union (2014) centralizes bank supervision for financial stability. - EU lacks common army, tax system, or full diplomatic service. - Some members have opt-outs (e.g., UK, Denmark, Sweden on Eurozone). - Multi-speed integration is emerging, with some members deeper integrated than others.

Question 24

# 4 Pros of Further EU Integration

Answer 24

- Promotes cosmopolitanism and counters narrow nationalism. - Economic and political union increases interdependence, reducing war risk. Political and economic union complement each other. - Single market boosts prosperity and global security. - Pooling sovereignty enables greater global influence.

Question 25

# 6 Cons of Further EU Integration

Answer 25

- Loss of national sovereignty can ignore unique national interests. - Weakening national identities provoke nationalist backlash. - Language and cultural differences hinder political allegiance. - The “democratic deficit”: EU institutions are distant and less accountable. - Integration driven by elites and corporate interests, not popular mandate. - Benefits mainly large, powerful states; fears of German dominance.

Question 26

# 5 Impact of EU Enlargement

Answer 26

- Trade creation increases market size, improving terms of trade. Economies of scale benefit producers; demand from accession countries grows. Foreign investment boosts incomes and helps transform new members. - Labour migration helps alleviate shortages and inflation pressures. But costs include higher spending on poorer regions and cohesion funds. - Decision-making becomes more complex. - Social and economic strains from migration and investment shifts. - Turkey’s potential accession faces strong opposition. Russia opposes Ukraine joining EU/NATO, creating geopolitical tension.

Question 27

# 7 EU Unity

Answer 27

Key Treaties: - Treaty of Rome (1957): Introduced the idea of an “ever closer union” between European states. - Single European Act (1986): Promoted free movement of goods, services, and people across member states. - Maastricht Treaty (1992): Formed the European Union (EU), introduced common citizenship, the single currency (Euro), and aimed for a single European foreign and defense policy. - Lisbon Treaty (2009): Created roles like the EU President and High Commissioner for Foreign Affairs, and gave the EU legal identity. - All these treaties have expanded Qualified Majority Voting (QMV) in the Council of Ministers, reducing national veto powers. - Influential leaders such as Angela Merkel and Jean-Claude Juncker support EU federalism, but this support may either push federalism forward or trigger backlash. - Brexit removes a major opponent of federalism, potentially accelerating moves toward deeper integration.

Question 28

# 6 EU Not Unified

Answer 28

- The Lisbon Treaty emphasizes subsidiarity, protecting national sovereignty by ensuring decisions are taken as closely as possible to citizens. - Member states retain control over core areas like taxation, immigration, defense, and foreign policy. - Challenges like the migrant crisis threaten the Schengen Agreement (free movement of people). - The Eurozone crisis and imposed austerity measures (the Troika) have weakened support for federalism, especially among left-wing groups. The rise of Eurosceptic and nationalist parties in countries like Poland, France, UK, Greece, Czech Republic, and Hungary signals growing resistance. - Events like Brexit and the election of Trump contribute to an existential crisis within the EU. - The fading memory of WWII has eroded the original idealism that helped bind the EU together.

Question 29

# 2 EU as a Model for Regionalism

Answer 29

- Since WWII and globalization, many regional organizations have formed (e.g., NAFTA/USMCA, MERCOSUR, African Union, ASEAN), focusing on economic, security, and political cooperation between neighbors. - However, the EU is a unique and complex case and may not be a practical model for others due to: Its democratic deficit and lack of full accountability. The single currency's troubled history. Difficulties managing a large membership (27 states), complicating decision-making (e.g., during the Ukrainian crisis). The replacement of national sovereignty with supranational institutions (Commission, ECB, Court of Justice), which many states might resist.

Question 29

# 4 Other regional bodies differ greatly to EU

Answer 29

- USMCA is a free trade bloc with no political integration; a common citizenship or currency is unlikely due to US national identity. - MERCOSUR connects South American trading partners and has an elected parliament, but no push for common citizenship or currency. - African Union engages in peacekeeping with the UN but has made little progress on free trade due to protected borders and financial interests. - ASEAN is somewhat similar to the EU, aiming to enhance trade and possibly establish common citizenship and currency, but with limited progress on legal or military unification. ASEAN’s drive is more about regional economic strength than EU-style integration.

Question 30

Other evidence that weakens globalisation

Answer 30

Pollution is accelerated by global economic expansion resulting from freer trade, leading to adverse effects such as global warming. Easier travel facilitates the spread of disease (SARS, AIDS, COVID-19), as well as the growth of organized crime (smuggling people & drugs) and terrorism. These developments make nonsense of national borders– eg the globalised communications and transport networks make it easier for terrorists to transfer funds, weapons and personnel between states and launch their attacks – for instance the 9/11 terrorists were drawn from cells in the US and Germany and were able to use planes as bombs. Recently the rise of ISIS, who have utilised the now globalised world very well, has made comprehensively clear that globalisation can be used to connect extreme organisations across the globe. (Bokko Haram swearing allegiance to ISIS being further evidence of this)