Unit 1 content summary

Question 1

4

Democracy Key Takeaways

Answer 1

• Representative democracy is the UK’s main system, with direct democracy used in referendums.
• The UK’s democracy faces debates on participation, democratic deficit, and potential reforms.
• Suffrage has expanded significantly, from the 1832 Reform Act to the Representation of the People Act 1918.
• Potential reforms include votes at 16, digital democracy, compulsory voting, and prisoner voting.

Question 2

4

Main Content
Different Types of Democracy

Answer 2

• Democracy: Rule by the people.
• Representative Democracy: People elect representatives (MPs) to act on their behalf.

Representatives exercise their own judgment, are held accountable through elections.
Direct Democracy: Individuals express opinions and vote on laws directly.

• Associated with ancient Athens, used today in referendums.
  Example: Brexit referendum, Scottish independence referendum.
  Example: 2015 Recall of MPs Act.
  Switzerland uses direct democracy extensively.
  Potential Reforms: Greater use of direct democracy (referendums).
• Recent referendums (Brexit) have conflicted with parliamentary sovereignty.

Question 3

4

Pluralist Democracy

Answer 3

• Government decisions result from interplay of ideas and arguments from competing groups.
• Encourages diverse voices and lessens the chance of minority neglect.
• Key points include pressure groups and responsiveness of representatives.
• Questions: To what extent does the UK have a pluralist democracy?

Question 4

Legitimacy

Answer 4

Legal right to exercise power (e.g., government’s right to rule after an election).
Derived from the support of the people.

Question 5

4

Similarities Between Direct and Representative Democracy

Answer 5

• Both designed to implement the will of the people.
• Based on majority rule; voting plays an important role.
• Implemented at local, regional, and national levels.
  Example: Referendums.
• People can be swayed by powerful individuals (politicians, media).
  Direct democracy elements (petitions, pressure groups) are important in representative democracy.

Question 6

Perspectives on Democracy

Answer 6

• Protective Perspective: Protects individual freedom; doesn’t require mass participation.
  Sufficient participation to grant legitimacy.
  (Assumption): UK democracy is healthy if it has a decent amount of political participation.
  Example: Elections with 60% turnout are not necessarily a problem.
• Developmental Perspective: Successful democracy needs active citizen engagement.
  Greater engagement leads to a more open and equal society.
  (Assumption): Low turnout and lack of political interest are problems.

Question 7

2

Differences Between Direct and Representative Democracy

Answer 7

• Direct democracy: Individuals express opinions themselves.
  Requires more citizen engagement.
  No political parties, but campaigns on each side.
  Accountability is less structured.
  Acts through the rule of the majority (tyranny of the majority).
• Representative democracy: Citizens elect representatives.
  Political parties exist.
  Government is elected and held accountable.
  More protections for minorities.
  Handles complex decisions better.

Question 8

2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Direct Democracy

Answer 8

• Advantages:
  Equal weight to all votes.
  Encourages participation.
  Removes the need for trusted representatives.
  Minimizes corruption.
  Develops a sense of community.
• Disadvantages:
  Impractical in large, populated states.
  Many people may not feel qualified to make decisions.
  Open to manipulation by speakers.
  Can disregard minority viewpoints (tyranny of the majority).

Question 9

2

Advantages and Disadvantages of Representative Democracy

Answer 9

• Advantages:
  Practical system for large countries.
  Parties give people a choice of representatives.
  Reduces the chance of tyranny of the majority.
  Elections hold representatives accountable.
  Politicians are better informed.
• Disadvantages:
  May lead to reduced participation.
  Parties/politicians may not represent the best interests of the people.
  Minorities can be underrepresented.
  Politicians avoid accountability.
  Politicians prioritize their interests.
  Representatives often elected with less than 50% of the vote.

Question 10

5

Assessments of the UK’s Democracy
Participation Crisis:
Arguments for

Answer 10

• Low voter turnout (hovering around 68%).
• Low turnout in second-order elections and referendums.
• Political apathy.
• Low party membership (1.6% of the electorate).
• Negative perceptions of MPs.

Question 11

5

Assessments of the UK’s Democracy
Participation Crisis:
Arguments against

Answer 11

• Significant turnouts in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum (84.6%) and the 2016 Brexit referendum (72.7%).
• Increase in turnout since 2001.
• Apathy suggests people are content.
  Surge in Labour party membership (2015).
  Significant party membership for smaller parties (SNP, UKIP).
• Increased pressure group membership.
• Direct action and social media participation.

Question 12

Positive Democratic Features:

Answer 12

• Devolved governments (Wales, Northern Ireland, Scotland).
  Elected mayors.
• Direct democracy (referendums).
  Independent judiciary.
• Free media.
• Free, fair, and regular elections.
• Wide range of parties and pressure groups.

Question 13

Arguments for democratic deficit:

Answer 13

• First-past-the-post system (unrepresentative results).
• Unelected House of Lords.
• Lack of protection for citizens’ rights (Human Rights Act).
• Control of the media by wealthy interests.
• MPs prioritizing careers.

Question 14

3

Who Can Vote Today:

Answer 14

• Adults over 18, registered to vote.
• British, Irish, and Commonwealth citizens.
  UK nationals living abroad for less than 15 years.
• Cannot Vote: Under 18, EU citizens (except Irish), House of Lords members, prisoners, those with corrupt electoral practices, and those detained in psychiatric hospitals.

Question 14

2

Key Events in Widening the Franchise:

Answer 14

• Before 1832: Varied voting rights, mainly for the wealthy.
  Problems: Unequal distribution of seats, plural voting, exclusion of women.
  In the early 19th century, the electorate totaled 400,000 (all men) out of a population of 10 million.
• 1832 Great Reform Act:
  Abolished underpopulated boroughs.
  Created seats for urban boroughs (e.g., Manchester).
  Extended the vote to more people in counties.
  Standardized qualifications for boroughs.
  Increased the vote to an estimated 650,000 (5% of the adult population).

Question 15

4

Key Events in Widening the Franchise II

Answer 15

• Chartists:
  Demanded the franchise for all men over 21, secret ballot, payment of MPs, and annual elections.
• Suffragists and Suffragettes:
  Suffragists (Millicent Fawcett) used non-violent methods.
  Suffragettes (Emmeline Pankhurst) used militant tactics.
• Key protest: Emily Davidson’s death at the Epsom Derby (1913).
  Attitudes: Hostility, but also sympathy.
  Imprisoned suffragettes used hunger strikes.
• 1918 Representation of the People Act:
  Granted all men over 21 and women over 30 (householders or wives of householders) the vote.
  75% of the adult population could now vote.
  Passed due to pressure and the role of women in WWI.

Question 16

3

Potential Further Reforms to Suffrage

Answer 16

Votes at 16:
Scotland (2014): 16 and 17-year-olds voted in the independence referendum.

• Arguments for:
  Have other legal rights.
  Would increase political participation.
  Social media has increased political awareness.
  Increased engagement in Scottish elections.
  Give them a say on issues (e.g., tuition fees).
• Arguments against:
  Lack necessary life experience and maturity.
  May misuse the right to vote.
  More likely to be taken in by fake news.
  Limited legal rights in practice.
  Low turnout among 16-24 year olds.
  Little evidence of desire for the vote.

Question 17

2

E-Voting and Digital Democracy

Answer 17

• E-democracy and digital democracy impact democracy through social media and the internet.
• Allows organizations with modest resources to campaign and spread views.
  E-petitions (10,000 signatures = government response, 100,000 signatures = debate in Parliament).
  Examples: Revoke Article 50, ban ISIS members.
  Websites like 38 degrees also have e-petitions.

Question 18

2

E-Voting and Digital Democracy arguments

Answer 18

• Arguments for:
  Increased participation.
  Informed electorate.
  Direct communication between government and citizens.
  Enhances pluralism.
• Arguments against:
  Greater access to extremist groups.
  Disinformation.
  Government influenced by short-term campaigns.

Question 19

2

Prisoner Voting arguments

Answer 19

• Arguments for:
  Voting is a fundamental right.
  European Court of Human Rights ruling (2005).
  Losing the vote is unlikely to deter crime.
  Removes civic responsibility and damages rehabilitation.
• Arguments against:
  Criminals forfeit the right to a say.
  Would have a significant impact on constituencies.

Question 20

2

Compulsory Voting arguments

Answer 20

• Arguments for:
  Voting is a social duty.
  Encourages people to engage.
  Makes polls more representative.
• Arguments against:
  May lead to donkey voting.
  Undemocratic to force people.
  Doesn’t address deeper reasons for not voting.

Question 21

2

Key Pressure Group Takeaways

Answer 21

• Types of Pressure Groups: Career, industry, social movements, and internal and external groups.
• Success Factors: Resources, Strategy, Leadership, Public Support, and Government Attitudes.
  Other impacts: How think tanks, lobbyists, and corporations influence government.

Question 22

Introducing the Pressure Group

Answer 22

• Definition: A group that seeks to influence politics to achieve a specific goal, unlike political parties, they do not seek political office, but rather change policy by influencing public opinion, parliament, and government.
• Reasons to join: Members may strongly support a particular political cause or benefit from benefits such as legal representation and job security.

Question 22

3

Types of pressure groups

Answer 22

• Cause-based groups: Focused on achieving a specific goal or drawing attention to a particular issue, membership is usually open to anyone sympathetic to the cause.
• Sectoral groups: Promote the interests of specific groups in society, such as trade unions, whose membership is usually limited to those with certain qualifications or expertise.
• Social Movements: Similar to cause-based groups, but loosely structured, often seeking to achieve a single goal, and thriving thanks to the advent of social media.

Question 23

# 2 Internal and external groups

Answer 23

- Internal groups: rely on close links with ministers and civil servants to achieve their goals, such as the National Farmers' Union. - Outside groups: Without consulting with the government, the targets are often far removed from the political mainstream, such as animal rights protesters.

Question 24

Methods of internal and external groups

Answer 24

- Internal groups: tend to lobby the government or parliamentarians, negotiate behind the scenes, and provide professional advice or draft legislation. - External groups: Use less cautious methods to get public attention, such as social media campaigns, petitions, demonstrations, and legal challenges.

Question 25

# 4 Case Study

Answer 25

- British Medical Association (BMA): An industry group that successfully fought for a ban on smoking in cars through public support and lobbying for the House of Lords. - National Farmers' Union (NFU): An in-house industry group that has succeeded with expertise and close links with the Ministry of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, such as the control of bovine tuberculosis. - Marcus Rashford's Free School Meals Campaign: An outside group, through social media, open letters, and petitions, successfully pushed the government to change its decision not to extend free school meals during the summer holidays. - Just Stop Oil and the recent RMT strikes: Outside groups, with limited success due to the scale of the target, the lack of effective strategy or leadership, and the attitude of the government.

Question 26

# 4 The reason for the success of the pressure group

Answer 26

- Resources: Larger memberships allow for pressure groups to operate offices, pay employees, and organize advocacy to gain significant influence. - Strategy and Leadership: Experienced leadership is critical to the success of pressure groups, such as the RSPCA that played a key role in banning hounds from hunting in 2004. - Public support: Pressure groups represent a large portion of public opinion and, using peaceful and respectable methods, are generally more successful. - Government attitudes: Governments usually listen to the groups they rely on, and internal groups are often more successful than external groups. The will of the government is also important.

Question 27

# 3 Think tanks, lobbyists, and corporations

Answer 27

- Think Tank: A panel of experts that investigates topics and provides solutions to complex economic, social, and political problems, for example, the Social Justice Center for the development of a universal credit welfare system. - Lobbyist: A member of a professional organization paid by clients (organizations, companies, and individuals seeking to influence the government) with the aim of gaining influence on behalf of their clients. - Companies: Due to their importance to the UK economy, they can have a significant impact on the government, for example, during the pandemic, companies can threaten to move operations to other countries.

Question 28

# 4 Key rights Takeaways

Answer 28

- Rights are legally protected freedoms (civil liberties), absolute, universal, and fundamental. Key milestones include the Magna Carta, Bill of Rights, European Convention on Human Rights, and the Human Rights Act. - The Human Rights Act (1998) incorporates the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law. - Civil liberties pressure groups like Stonewall, Care4Calais, Liberty, and the Howard League for Penal Reform play a crucial role. - Judicial review, Parliament, and the government are key in protecting rights, though they can also be challenged.

Question 29

# 4 Introduction to Rights in the UK

Answer 29

- Rights: Legally protected freedoms (civil liberties). They are absolute, universal, and fundamental. - Examples: Fair treatment under the law, freedom of expression, the right to vote, freedom of movement, and social rights (healthcare, education). - Civil Responsibilities: Legal (obeying laws, paying taxes, jury service) and moral (voting, protecting the environment). - Before Human Rights Act: Rights were largely unwritten and negative (freedom unless prohibited). The Human Rights Act (1998) introduced positive rights.

Question 30

# 4 Key Milestones in Rights Development

Answer 30

- 1215: Magna Carta: Limited royal power and established the right to trial by jury. Bill of Rights: Further restricted the monarch's power. - European Convention on Human Rights: Established after WWII to prevent human rights violations, with the UK as a signatory. - Human Rights Act (1998): Incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law. - Freedom of Information Act: Increased government transparency. Equality Act (2010): Outlawed discrimination based on protected characteristics.

Question 31

# 2 Key Debates on the Human Rights Act

Answer 31

- Arguments for: Creates a rights-based culture, ensuring laws comply with the Act. Places obligations on public authorities to treat everyone fairly. Makes rights more high-profile. Provides protection in UK courts. - Arguments against: Protects the wrong individuals. Gives unelected judges too much power. Not entrenched and can be replaced.

Question 32

# 4 Civil Liberties Pressure Groups

Answer 32

- Stonewall: Campaigns for LGBT rights, using both insider and outsider tactics. Successes: Challenging the ban on homosexuality in the armed forces, introducing civil partnerships. - Care4Calais: Delivers aid to refugees and campaigns for their rights. Successes: Legal challenges against deportations to Rwanda. - Liberty: Protects civil liberties and human rights through courts, Parliament, and campaigns. Successes: Challenging the Investigatory Powers Act (2016). - Howard League for Penal Reform: Advocates for prisoners' rights. Successes: High Court ruling on prisoners' families selling books.

Question 33

# 2 Judiciary, Parliament, and Government in Defending Rights

Answer 33

- Judiciary: Judicial review of government actions. Arguments for: Defends citizens' rights, scrutinizes government actions. Arguments against: Gives too much power to unelected judges. - Parliament and Government: Introduce legislation to protect rights. Examples: Human Rights Act, Equality Act, Freedom of Information Act. Examples of challenges: Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act (2022), proposed changes to the Human Rights Act.

Question 34

# 4 Key Debates Over Rights

Answer 34

- Collective vs. Individual Rights: Conflicts arise, especially in security and emergencies. Examples: Counter-terrorism measures, COVID-19 lockdowns. - Arguments: Government may prioritize collective rights over individual rights. How Well Are Rights Protected in the UK? - Arguments for: Equality Act, HRA, effective civil liberties pressure groups, the House of Lords, and the Judiciary. - Arguments against: Erosion through counter-terrorism, the Police, Crime, Sentencing and Courts Act, proposed British Bill of Rights, and bias in the Judiciary.

Question 35

Key Takeaways for political party funding

Answer 35

- Political parties aim to form governments and enact policies. - Party funding comes from various sources, including membership fees, trade unions, donations, and public funds. - There are concerns about the influence of donors and potential corruption. - State funding is a debated topic, with arguments for and against its implementation.

Question 36

# 2 What are Political Parties and key Roles of Parties

Answer 36

- A group of people with a broad ideology who aim to form a government and enact policies. Distinct from pressure groups that influence politics but do not enter candidates in elections. - Represent the views of the people. Encourage political participation. Recruit future politicians. Formulate policies. Form governments.

Question 37

The Political Spectrum

Answer 37

- A way of measuring and describing policy positions of different parties. - Left-wing parties favor change, reform, and a large welfare state (e.g., Labour). - Right-wing parties support the status quo, order, and smaller government (e.g., Conservatives).

Question 38

# 4 Types of Political Parties

Answer 38

- Major/Mainstream Parties: Run candidates in all constituencies, develop policies in all areas, and have a realistic chance of forming a government (e.g., Conservatives, Labour). - Minor/Minority Parties: Stand candidates in elections but have little chance of winning (e.g., SNP, Green Party, UKIP). - Nationalist parties (e.g., SNP, Sinn Fein) campaign for independence. - Single-issue parties (e.g., Green Party, UKIP) focus on specific issues.

Question 39

# 5 Sources of Party Funding

Answer 39

- Membership Subscriptions: Members pay monthly fees. (e.g., Labour: £4.38/month, 430,000 members). - Trade Unions: Labour receives significant funding from affiliated unions (Unison, Unite, GMB). The 2016 Trade Union Act impacted Labour's funding. - Local Constituency Fundraising: Raffles, dinners, etc. (e.g., Labour received £200,000 in 2021). - Public Funding: Primarily for opposition parties (e.g., Short money, Crumble money). Labour received nearly £7 million in 2021. - Donations: From businesses, organizations, and individuals. No limits on donations. (e.g., Conservative Party relies heavily on donations).

Question 39

# 4 Why Parties Need Funding

Answer 39

- To fight elections (advertising, campaigning). - To hold party conferences. - To conduct research and develop policies. - To employ staff.

Question 40

Key Legislation

Answer 40

- 2000 Political Parties, Elections, and Referendums Act: Established the Electoral Commission, banned foreign donations, and introduced reporting requirements. Donations/loans over £7,500 to the central party, £1,500 to party sections, and £500 for MPs must be reported.

Question 41

Concerns over Party Funding

Answer 41

- Reliance on donations from wealthy individuals and businesses. - Worries about buying political influence. - Scandals involving cash for peerages, and undisclosed donations.

Question 42

# 6 Scandals Related to Party Funding

Answer 42

- Cash-for-Peerages Scandal (2006-2007): Allegations of loans to Labour in exchange for peerages. Bernie Ecclestone Donation (1997): A £1 million donation to Labour, with alleged links to a delay in banning tobacco advertising in F1. - Michael Brown Donation (2005): A £2.4 million donation to the Lib Dems from a businessman later jailed for perjury. - Lord Cruddas Appointment (2021): A Conservative donor appointed to the House of Lords shortly after donating £500,000. - PPE Contracts (COVID-19): Contracts awarded to a company linked to Tory peer Michelle Mone. - Russian Influence: Donations to the Conservative Party linked to Russia, raising security concerns. - 2015 Proposal: Labour and Lib Dems proposed limiting individual donations, which was not implemented.

Question 43

Arguments For State Funding

Answer 43

- Parties are key to democracy and deserve funding. - Reduce reliance on vested interests. - Remove disparity in resources. - Encourage public participation. - Allow politicians to focus on governing. - Curb corruption.

Question 44

Arguments Against State Funding

Answer 44

- Parties should be independent from the state. - Could isolate parties from the public. - Costs the state a significant amount. - Taxpayers may not want to fund parties they don't support. - Could uphold the power of existing parties.

Question 45

Key Takeaways for Labour Party

Answer 45

- The Labour Party's history is marked by shifts from socialism to social democracy and back, reflecting changing political landscapes. - New Labour, under Tony Blair, adopted a more centrist approach, while Corbyn's leadership moved the party back towards its socialist roots. - Current Labour policies under Starmer aim to balance economic stability with social justice, reflecting a blend of old and new Labour approaches.

Question 46

Labour Party Origins

Answer 46

- Founded in 1900 by socialist societies and trade unions. - Originally the Labour Representation Committee, aimed to get working-class MPs into Parliament. - The 1918 Labour Constitution (Clause 4) committed the party to common ownership (socialism).

Question 47

Old Labour (Social Democracy)

Answer 47

- Post-WWII, Clement Attlee's government (1945) nationalized key industries (coal, railways, etc.), introduced the NHS and a welfare state. - Emphasized wealth redistribution and a fairer society but didn't abolish capitalism. - Keynesian economics (managing the economy) and a mixed economy. Example: Creation of comprehensive schools.

Question 48

Decline of Old Labour

Answer 48

- James Callaghan (last Old Labour PM) lost to Thatcher in 1979. - Division between moderate social democrats and more left-wing elements. - Michael Foot's 1983 manifesto was very socialist (nationalization, increased taxes, etc.), and was unpopular.

Question 49

New Labour

Answer 49

- Shift away from hard-left positions in the 1980s to broaden support. Two election defeats (1987, 1992) and Tony Blair's leadership led to success in 1997. Rebranded as New Labour, adopting a 'third way' approach (Anthony Giddens). - Dropped unpopular policies, revised Clause 4 (no longer committed to nationalization), and downgraded trade union influence. Developed links with the business community. Modernization and democratization. Examples: Devolution, House of Lords reform, Human Rights Act. Successful in 1997, re-elected twice, but unpopular due to the Iraq War.

Question 50

Gordon Brown

Answer 50

- 2008 financial crash: Treasury injected money into banks, nationalized vulnerable banks. - Increased income tax (50% band for high earners). - Maintained public spending. Seen by some as a return to Old Labour, but these were emergency measures.

Question 51

Ed Miliband

Answer 51

- Continued many New Labour policies but moved slightly left. - Called for the restoration of the 50% tax rate, a temporary energy freeze, and a crackdown on tax avoidance. - Combined New Labour support for business with the defense of the working class. Dubbed 'Red Ed' by the media.

Question 52

Jeremy Corbyn

Answer 52

- Significant pressure from the left after the 2015 defeat. Corbyn, a staunch socialist, became leader in 2015. - Moved the party significantly leftward (embracing Old Labour policies). - Slogan: 'For the many, not the few'. Lost the 2017 election marginally, then destroyed in 2019.

Question 53

Keir Starmer

Answer 53

- Elected leader after the 2019 defeat. - Moved the party closer to the center ground. - Suspended Corbyn. - Labour has overtaken the Conservatives in polls (Spring 2022).

Question 54

New Labour (Economic Policy)

Answer 54

- Did not increase taxes and conserved resources before investing more in public services. - Significant spending on public services. - Introduced the national minimum wage (less generous than unions wanted). - Supported capitalism and private finance initiatives (PFIs).

Question 55

New Labour (Law and Order)

Answer 55

- 'Tough on crime, tough on the causes of crime' (Blair). - Conditions on welfare benefits, anti-social behavior orders. - Some measures prioritized community safety over human rights. - Encouraged immigration.

Question 56

# 4 New Labour (Welfare and Foreign policy)

Answer 56

- Increased spending on the NHS and education. Example: Core spend per pupil increased by 48% (1997-2007). - Winter fuel payment for pensioners, free off-peak travel for over 65s. - Minimum wage and Working Families Tax Credit. - Iraq War (2003). Doubled foreign aid spending.