What is motivation?
Motivation = processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (esp. organisational).
Intensity → How hard you try (e.g., sprinting vs jogging).
Direction → Where effort is channelled (aligned with goals).
Persistence → How long you stick with it.
Analogy: Motivation is like driving a car:
Intensity = how hard you press the accelerator
Direction = steering wheel
Persistence = how long you keep driving
What are the three key elements of motivation?
Intensity – effort exerted.
Direction – effort aligned with goals.
Persistence – duration of effort.
What does Vroom’s Expectancy Theory explain?
Tendency to act in a certain way depends on expectation that the act will lead to an outcome + attractiveness of outcome.
It has 3 relationships:
Expectancy (E): Will effort → performance?
Instrumentality (I): Will performance → rewards?
Valence (V): Will rewards → satisfy personal goals?
Formula: Motivation = Σ (V × I × E)
Expectancy (E): “If I put in extra effort, learn new skills, and perform well, will my work performance actually improve?”
Instrumentality (I): “If I perform at a high level, will my manager notice and actually give me a promotion or bonus?”
Valence (V): “Do I personally value the promotion or bonus (e.g., higher salary, recognition, career growth)?”
✅ If all three are strong, the employee will be highly motivated.
❌ If one is weak (e.g., they don’t believe the manager will reward them), motivation drops.
What does Valence mean in Expectancy Theory?
The attractiveness of a reward to personal goals (intrinsic or extrinsic).
Analogy: Imagine being promised chocolate (if you like chocolate = high valence; if you don’t = low valence).
What is Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory?
Motivation increases when self-efficacy (belief in ability to perform a task) increases.
Higher self-efficacy → higher confidence → more effort → better performance.
Analogy: Like believing you can climb a mountain → you’re more likely to start and keep going.
How does self-efficacy fit into Expectancy Theory?
Self-efficacy strengthens the Effort → Performance (E) link.
More confidence = higher expectancy that effort will lead to performance.
What are the 4 sources of self-efficacy?
Enactive mastery → hands-on experience (practice makes perfect).
Example: Running a marathon before makes you confident for another.
Vicarious modelling → learning by observing others (if they can do it, I can too).
Verbal persuasion → pep talks (“You can do this!”).
A coach telling you “You can do this!” before a game.
Arousal → being psyched up, emotionally energised.
Feeling pumped up with adrenaline right before giving a big presentation.
How can organisations use Self-Efficacy Theory to motivate employees?
By increasing employees’ self-efficacy through:
Training & practice (enactive mastery)
Role models (vicarious modelling)
Positive encouragement (verbal persuasion)
Boosting energy & focus (arousal)
What is a key implication of Expectancy Theory?
The easier the task, the higher the motivation (since expectancy ↑ when tasks seem achievable).
Analogy: Like a video game – you’re more motivated to play when the level feels winnable, not impossible.
How do Expectancy Theory and Self-Efficacy Theory connect?
Expectancy Theory = overall framework for motivation (E → P → R → G).
Self-Efficacy Theory = strengthens the first link (Effort → Performance).
Analogy: Expectancy Theory is the roadmap of motivation. Self-efficacy is the fuel that powers the first step.
What is the main premise of Locke & Latham’s Goal Setting Theory?
Specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance.
Analogy: It’s like archery: aiming at a clear, challenging target pushes you to focus and try harder.
Through which mechanisms do goals improve performance?
Direction → guides focus (what to pay attention to).
Example: Sales target makes you focus on sales calls, not paperwork.
Effort → motivates harder work.
Example: Running faster in a race when you set a time goal.
Persistence → keeps you going longer.
Example: Sticking with studying late because you want an A.
Strategies → encourages planning & problem-solving.
Example: Finding a new sales pitch to reach your target.
👉 In short: Clear, tough goals improve performance by focusing attention, boosting effort, sustaining persistence, and sparking better strategies.
What are moderators in Goal Setting Theory?
Goal Commitment → Effort is sustained
If you believe in and accept the goal, you won’t give up easily.
Example: If a salesperson commits to hitting €100k sales, they’ll keep pushing even when rejections happen.
Without commitment → goal is ignored.
Feedback → Effort is directed
Feedback tells you if you’re on track.
Example: A runner aiming for a marathon time needs split-time feedback to adjust pace.
Without feedback → you could waste effort in the wrong direction.
Task Complexity → Effort is adapted
For simple tasks
Yes, easier/specific goals are better (e.g., “assemble 100 units in 2 hours”).
Because the task is straightforward, a specific and challenging target directly pushes performance higher.
- For complex tasks
If the goal is too rigid (“solve cancer in 6 months”), people get overwhelmed → performance drops.
That’s why task complexity moderates the effect:
For complex goals, success comes from giving people time, resources, and flexibility.
Instead of a narrow target, broader or learning-focused goals (“develop new approaches to cancer research”) are more effective.
👉 So, task complexity doesn’t mean “harder is better.”
It means:
For simple tasks → challenging, specific goals = best performance.
For complex tasks → realistic, flexible goals + support = best performance.
Why is Goal Setting Theory considered useful?
Strong evidence (meta-analysis: correlation between goal difficulty & performance = .25–.38).
Practical → basis for SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound).
What are organisational rewards?
Extrinsic rewards (tangible): salary, bonuses, promotions, perks, praise, job security, support, free time, no demotions/firings.
Intrinsic rewards (internal): enjoyment, interestingness, accomplishment, knowledge gain, skill development, expression, less boredom, less anxiety, less frustration.
Analogy: Extrinsic = “the paycheck”; Intrinsic = “the passion.”
What is McClelland’s Theory of Needs?
People have three implicit motivating drivers; one dominates depending on culture & experience:
Need for achievement (nAch) – drive to excel relative to standards.
Need for power (nPow) – desire to make others behave differently.
Need for affiliation (nAff) – desire for close relationships.
How do McClelland’s needs influence roles?
High nAch → good in jobs with responsibility, feedback, moderate risk.
High nAff → good team players.
High nPow & low nAff → good managers.
Why is McClelland’s theory not used more widely?
Measuring subconscious needs is tricky
