: What is the basic Input–Process–Outcome framework for teams?
Input: Team composition (who is in the team).
Process: Teamwork processes (how the team works together).
Outcome: Team effectiveness (what results are achieved).
👉 Analogy: Like baking a cake — ingredients (input), recipe/mixing (process), and the cake itself (outcome).
What are the two main types of phases in teamwork?
Transition phases: Evaluation and planning (mission analysis, goal-setting, strategy).
Action phases: Executing tasks that directly achieve the team’s goals.
👉 Example: In sports, the coach’s halftime talk = transition, playing the second half = action.
What happens during transition processes?
: Teams analyze the mission, set clear goals and subgoals, prioritize, and plan strategies (including role distribution and expectations).
👉 Analogy: Like planning a road trip — checking the map, setting destinations, and deciding who drives when.
What happens during action processes?
Teams monitor progress, track resources, back each other up, and coordinate tasks.
👉 Example: In a project, one member might check deadlines, another tracks budget, and others step in if someone falls behind.
What are the main interpersonal processes in teams?
Managing motivation, managing affect (emotions & bonds), and managing conflict.
👉 Analogy: Like being on a long hike — not just about the path (task), but also keeping spirits high, avoiding fights, and helping each other along.
What is the Ringelmann effect in teams?
People exert less effort in groups than when working alone. The bigger the group, the stronger this effect (social loafing).
👉 Example: In tug-of-war, each person pulls less hard when many others are pulling too.
What is the Köhler effect in teams?
Weaker members often increase their effort when paired with stronger teammates, especially in conjunctive tasks.
👉 Example: In a gym session, a weaker lifter tries harder when spotting with a stronger partner.
How does dispensability of effort affect team motivation?
- Additive tasks
• Definition: Everyone’s contributions add up to the final result.
• Example: A fundraiser — the total money raised is just the sum of what each person collects.
• Effect on motivation: Since one person slacking doesn’t ruin everything (others can make up for it), effort feels more dispensable.
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- Conjunctive tasks
• Definition: The group’s success depends on the weakest member.
• Example: Mountain climbing — the team can only go as fast as the slowest climber.
• Effect on motivation: Everyone’s effort is indispensable, because one weak link pulls the whole group down.
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- Disjunctive tasks
• Definition: The outcome depends on the best member.
• Example: A quiz bowl — as long as one super smart teammate knows the answer, the team succeeds.
• Effect on motivation: People might feel their effort matters less unless they think they’re the strongest member.
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👉 Analogy with group projects (from your card):
• Additive: Each part adds up (like dividing slides in a presentation).
• Conjunctive: One person not doing their part ruins everything.
• Disjunctive: Only the best idea or solution matters — whoever has it carries the team.
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✅ So in short:
• If effort is dispensable, people may slack.
• If effort is indispensable, people stay motivated (but also pressured).
How can teams avoid free-riding and boost motivation?
Increase intrinsic interest & meaningfulness.
Raise team-efficacy (confidence).
Make contributions unique & indispensable.
Make each person’s effort visible.
Increase team cohesion.
What is team cohesion?
Emotional bonds that link members to each other and to the group as a whole.
👉 Cohesive teams are less likely to loaf and can be more productive (depending on norms).
: Why is team cohesion important for performance?
Cohesion reduces free-riding, increases trust, and fosters cooperation, making teams more effective.
👉 Example: A sports team that “clicks” emotionally tends to coordinate better on the field.
How can teams increase cohesion? (Part 1)
(Increase interaction)
Make the group smaller.
Increase time members spend together.
Physically isolate the group.
👉 Analogy: Like roommates who bond more the longer they live together and spend time without outside distractions.
How can teams increase cohesion? (Part 2)
(emphasize group identity)
Increase group status/difficulty to join.
Encourage agreement with group goals.
Give rewards to the group, not individuals.
Stimulate competition with other groups.
👉 Example: Sports teams often strengthen cohesion by competing against rivals
What is the link between group identity and cohesion?
The more members identify with the group, the more positively they see teammates and the more cooperative they become.
👉 Analogy: Wearing the same team jersey makes players feel united and more willing to support each other.
What did Asch’s classical study on conformity show?
Conformity is adjusting one’s behavior or opinions to match the group. Asch’s study showed that even in simple tasks with obvious answers, people often conformed — 75% gave at least one conforming answer, and 37% of responses overall were conforming. This proves how powerful group pressure can be, even without rewards or punishments.
👉 Analogy: Like agreeing the sky is green just because everyone else in the room insists it is.
What factors influence conformity according to Asch’s findings?
Conformity has declined but still exists. It is higher in collectivist cultures than in individualist cultures, but it remains a strong force everywhere.
👉 Example: People may go along with a wrong group answer in a meeting, even if they know it’s wrong, just to fit in.
How can high team cohesion be a double-edged sword?
Highly cohesive teams are less likely to loaf and can be more productive — but they may struggle to cooperate with outsiders and be more prone to conformity pressures.
👉 Analogy: A close-knit sports team may play well together but ignore better strategies from the coach because they stick to their shared habits.
What is groupthink?
Groupthink happens when people in a group want to keep harmony so badly that they stop thinking critically. Instead of questioning ideas, they just agree, even if the decision is clearly bad.
🔑 Main takeaway: Groupthink shows how too much cohesion and pressure for consensus can harm decision-making — the group loses creativity and ignores better alternatives.
👉 Example: Imagine a project team where everyone sees the plan has flaws, but nobody speaks up because they don’t want to disrupt unity. The result? A bad decision gets approved.
: What is groupshift or group polarization?
When group discussion pushes members to adopt more extreme versions of their initial positions.
👉 Example: An investment club might start cautiously, but after discussion, everyone becomes overly risk-seeking.
What is motivated information processing in teams?
Motivated information processing explains how deeply and accurately team members share, discuss, and integrate information when solving problems together.
It depends on two key motivations:
Epistemic motivation – the desire to understand issues thoroughly rather than settling for superficial answers.
High epistemic motivation → team members question assumptions, analyze evidence, and seek accuracy.
Low epistemic motivation → they rush to conclusions or rely on first impressions.
Social motivation – the degree to which team members care about collective vs. individual outcomes.
Collective focus → encourages open sharing and collaboration.
Individual focus → leads to withholding information or competition.
What outcomes do high vs. low epistemic motivation lead to?
High epistemic motivation: better problem-solving, information pooling, knowledge integration.
Low epistemic motivation: inaction, social loafing, inflexibility.
👉 Example: A team that debates thoroughly makes stronger strategies; one that rushes produces shallow solutions.
What drives epistemic motivation in teams?
Individual drivers: openness, need for cognition.
Situational drivers: time pressure (lowers), accountability (raises), preference diversity (raises).
👉 Analogy: Pressure to decide fast makes people skim; accountability makes them double-check carefully.
What are the positive and negative effects of team conflict?
Negative: wasted energy, dissatisfaction, less trust, less collaboration, turnover.
Positive: deeper understanding, critical evaluation, overcoming biases, better decisions, innovation.
👉 Takeaway: Conflict can be functional or dysfunctional.
What are the three types of conflict in teams?
Relationship conflict: personal incompatibilities (usually harmful).
Task conflict: differences in viewpoints about the task (can be beneficial).
Process conflict: disagreements about how tasks should be done (often harmful).
