Midterm 2 A&P

Question 1

What is proteinuria?

Answer 1

the presence of more than 150 milligrams (or an EXCESSIVE AMOUNT) of PROTEIN PER DAY IN the URINE

Proteinuria can be an early indicator of kidney disease. It is important to monitor protein levels regularly if you have a history of kidney problems or are at risk for developing them.

Question 2

What is oliguria?

Answer 2

a medical condition characterized by a significantly REDUCED URINE OUTPUT. It is defined as producing less than 400 milliliters (ml) of urine in 24 hours.

Question 3

What is the normal range of urine specific gravity?

Answer 3

generally between 1.005 and 1.030

CAN VARY slightly depending on: hydration status, age, diet, and underlying medical conditions

Question 4

What is trigone?

Answer 4

a smooth triangular area on the INNER SURFACE of the BLADDER

stabilizes the attachment of the ureters to the bladder, and the otherwise mobile bladder to the pelvic fascia

Question 5

Should glucose be in a urine specimen?

Answer 5

No, glucose should not normally be in a urine specimen; its presence, known as glycosuria, indicates a potential issue like diabetes and requires further testing, as it suggests the body is not properly managing blood sugar levels

Question 6

What is glomerulus?

Answer 6

the main filtering unit of the kidney. It is formed by a network of small blood vessels (capillaries) enclosed within a sac called the Bowman’s capsule. The space inside the capsule that surrounds the glomeruli is known as the Bowman’s space. Each glomerulus is located at the beginning of the nephron.

Question 7

What is the function of a renal tubule?

Answer 7

reabsorption and secretion to fine-tune the composition of the filtered fluid and ultimately form urine. It reabsorbs essential substances like water, glucose, and electrolytes back into the blood, while also secreting excess acids, toxins, and waste products from the blood into the fluid to be eliminated from the body.

Question 7

What electrolyte is absorbed in a proximal convoluted tubule?

Answer 7

SODIUM, potassium, chloride, and calcium, along with water, glucose, amino acids, and bicarbonate. While SODUM is the most significant electrolyte reabsorbed in this segment, reabsorption of other electrolytes like potassium and chloride also occurs here, along with vital nutrients like glucose.

Question 8

What is the definition of Kcal?

Answer 8

kilocalorie. It is a unit of energy commonly used to measure the energy content of food and the amount of energy expended through physical activity

Question 9

What is the function of ghrelin?

Answer 9

stimulate appetite by acting on the brain’s hunger and reward centers, which increases food intake and energy storage. It also plays a crucial role in energy homeostasis, promoting fat accumulation and slowing fat burning. Additionally, ghrelin stimulates the release of growth hormone, influences memory and learning by acting on the hippocampus, and can modulate gastrointestinal functions like motility and acid secretion.

Question 10

What are some examples of micronutrients?

Answer 10

Micronutrients are essential nutrients required in small amounts for various bodily functions. Examples of micronutrients include:
Vitamins, Minerals, & Trace elements

Question 11

Where are the fat soluble vitamins stored?

Answer 11

Fat-soluble vitamins (vitamins A, D, E, and K) are stored in the body’s fatty tissues and liver

Question 12

What body systems does vitamin A affect?

Answer 12

Vitamin A primarily supports the immune system, vision, reproduction, and cell growth.

It is also essential for maintaining the health of the skin and the lining of internal organs, such as the lungs, intestines, and urinary tract. A deficiency can lead to night blindness and impaired immunity, while excess can cause toxicity with symptoms like vision changes and bone pain.

Question 13

What is the difference between fat and H2O soluble vitamins?

Answer 13

Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed with dietary fats, stored in the body’s fatty tissues and liver, and require a fat source for absorption,

while water-soluble vitamins (B vitamins and C) dissolve in water, are not stored, and are excreted in urine, requiring regular daily intake. This difference impacts how they are absorbed, transported, stored, and eliminated by the body.

Question 14

What is the function of carbs?

Answer 14

Carbohydrates (carbs) play crucial roles in the human body. Their primary functions include:
Energy production, Energy Storage, Building Macromolecules, Maintaining Blood Glucose Levels, and Supporting Digestive Health

Question 15

What types of sugars are associated with polysaccharides, monosaccharides, and disaccharides?

Answer 15

Monosaccharides include sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides are formed from two monosaccharides and include sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose + galactose), and maltose (glucose + glucose). Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides and include complex carbohydrates like starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Question 16

What is the rationale for cellulose in the diet?

Answer 16

The rationale for including cellulose in the human diet is that it acts as a form of insoluble dietary fiber, promoting digestive health and offering other systemic benefits despite not being digestible by humans.

Question 17

What are factors that affect the metabolic rate?

Answer 17

Factors affecting metabolic rate include body composition (muscle mass, fat mass), body size, age, gender, genetics, and physical activity level. Lifestyle factors like diet, environmental temperature, and illness also play a role, with things like building muscle, high-intensity exercise, and a balanced diet generally increasing your metabolic rate.

Question 18

What are some food sources for iron?

Answer 18

Red meat (beef, pork, lamb)
Poultry (chicken, turkey)
Seafood (oysters, clams, tuna)
Eggs
Liver
Legumes (lentils, beans, peas)
Dark leafy green vegetables (spinach, kale, collard greens)
Seeds (pumpkin seeds, sesame seeds)
Nuts (cashews, almonds)
Fortified cereals and breads
Molasses
Blackstrap syrup
Tofu
Tempeh

Question 19

What does rugae do for the stomach?

Answer 19

folds in the stomach’s lining that serve two main purposes: to allow the stomach to expand and contract, accommodating varying amounts of food and liquid, and to increase the stomach’s surface area, which promotes efficient mechanical and chemical digestion

Question 20

What are the major electrolytes for cations?

Answer 20

sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium

Question 21

What are the major electrolytes for anions?

Answer 21

bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), and phosphate (PO₄³⁻)

Question 22

What is the major cation for the ECF and ICF?

Answer 22

The major cation for the extracellular fluid (ECF) is sodium (Na+), and the major cation for the intracellular fluid (ICF) is potassium (K+). These concentrations are critical for maintaining fluid balance, nerve impulses, and muscle contractions.

Question 23

What is volume depletion and what are some causes?

Answer 23

a significant reduction in a person’s extracellular fluid volume, resulting from losing salt and fluid at a rate greater than they are replaced. It is also known as hypovolemia and involves the loss of both water and sodium. Common causes include bleeding (hemorrhage), gastrointestinal issues like vomiting and diarrhea, excessive sweating, diuretic medications, and burns

Question 24

What is dehydration and what are some causes?

Answer 24

a condition where your body loses more fluids than it takes in, resulting in insufficient water to perform its normal functions. Common causes include excessive sweating from exercise or hot weather, illnesses leading to vomiting and diarrhea, and not drinking enough water due to sickness or other factors. Certain medications, like diuretics, and some medical conditions such as uncontrolled diabetes can also cause dehydration.

Question 25

What is the cause of edema?

Answer 25

Edema is a condition where excess fluid accumulates in the body's tissues, causing swelling. It can be caused by various factors, including: Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, Decreased lymphatic drainage, Increased permeability of capillaries, Reduced plasma protein concentration, Hormonal changes, Heart failure, Obesity, Medications (e.g., corticosteroids, NSAIDs), Idiopathic (unknown cause)

Question 26

What area of the brain participates in fluid regulation for the body?

Answer 26

the hypothalamus, a small structure located deep within the brain. It works in concert with specialized sensory organs to detect changes in blood volume and osmolality (salt concentration) and trigger an appropriate response to maintain homeostasis

Question 27

What is the effect of hypovolemia on a person's blood pressure?

Answer 27

Hypovolemia causes a person's blood pressure to drop (hypotension) because the decreased blood volume reduces the heart's ability to pump enough blood, leading to lower cardiac output. The body may initially compensate by increasing heart rate and constricting blood vessels, but as volume loss continues, blood pressure will fall, resulting in symptoms like dizziness and confusion.

Question 28

What is the effect of hypervolemia on a person's blood pressure?

Answer 28

Hypervolemia, or fluid overload, increases a person's blood pressure because the excess fluid expands the blood volume, forcing the heart to work harder to pump the extra blood throughout the body. This increased workload on the cardiovascular system leads to a rise in blood pressure, contributing to hypertension.

Question 29

What is the effect of ADH?

Answer 29

Increases Water Reabsorption, Maintains Blood Volume, Controls Sodium Levels, Promotes Vasoconstriction, Stimulates Thirst

Question 30

What is the electrolyte that is fatal with hypo or hyper imbalance?

Answer 30

An imbalance of potassium (K+) is the electrolyte most likely to be fatal due to its critical role in heart, nerve, and muscle function. Both abnormally low levels (hypokalemia) and high levels (hyperkalemia) can lead to life-threatening heart arrhythmias and cardiac arrest.

Question 31

What is secreted during a hyponatremia imbalance?

Answer 31

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) is often secreted in inappropriately high amounts, particularly in cases of Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH (SIADH) or conditions with low blood volume. ADH promotes water retention by the kidneys, which dilutes the body's sodium and worsens the imbalance. In some forms of hyponatremia, such as hypovolemic hyponatremia, renin is also secreted in response to low blood volume and sodium, stimulating the release of ADH and causing the kidneys to retain both water and sodium.

Question 32

What level is hyponatremia?

Answer 32

Hyponatremia is defined as a low sodium level in the blood. The normal serum sodium concentration is between 135 and 145 millimoles per liter (mmol/L). Hyponatremia is classified based on the severity of the sodium deficiency: Mild: Sodium concentration between 130 and 135 mmol/L Moderate: Sodium concentration between 120 and 129 mmol/L Severe: Sodium concentration below 120 mmol/L

Question 33

What are some causes of hypokalemia?

Answer 33

Increased Potassium Loss Shift of Potassium into Cells Metabolic alkalosis Magnesium deficiency Certain medications (e.g., amphotericin B, digoxin) Genetic disorders (e.g., Gitelman syndrome

Question 34

What are the signs and symptoms of a hypocalcemia imbalance?

Answer 34

Signs of hypocalcemia (low blood calcium) include neurological symptoms like tingling, numbness, muscle spasms (tetany), and seizures, along with cardiac abnormalities such as irregular heart rhythms. Less severe signs can be skin, hair, and nail changes, including dry, scaly skin and brittle nails. Severe or untreated hypocalcemia can lead to more serious complications.

Question 35

What are the signs and symptoms of a hypercalcemia imbalance?

Answer 35

More frequent urination and thirst. Fatigue. Bone pain. Headaches. Nausea and vomiting. Constipation. Decrease in appetite. Forgetfulness, depression or irritability.

Question 36

What does chloride form in the stomach acid?

Answer 36

In the stomach, chloride ions (Cl⁻) bind with hydrogen ions (H⁺) to form hydrochloric acid (HCl). This acid is a key component of gastric juice, essential for creating the acidic environment needed for pepsin to digest proteins and for killing ingested pathogens.

Question 37

What acid base imbalance will result from hyperventilation?

Answer 37

Hyperventilation, or breathing too fast, causes a decrease in blood carbon dioxide levels, which leads to respiratory alkalosis, an imbalance where the blood becomes too alkaline (high pH). This occurs because carbon dioxide is a respiratory acid, and its excessive loss shifts the blood's acid-base balance toward the alkaline side.

Question 38

What is the body's response for correction of metabolic alkalosis?

Answer 38

The body responds to metabolic alkalosis by using its respiratory and renal systems to restore balance. The lungs compensate by slowly breathing (hypoventilation) to retain carbon dioxide, which increases carbonic acid and hydrogen ions, thereby lowering the pH. The kidneys further assist by increasing the excretion of bicarbonate and retaining hydrogen ions.

Question 39

What are the causes of metabolic acidosis?

Answer 39

Metabolic acidosis occurs when the body produces too many acids or fails to eliminate them adequately, leading to a decrease in blood pH. Common causes include: Increased Acid Production Bicarbonate Loss Overdose of certain medications (e.g., aspirin, metformin) Metabolic disorders (e.g., urea cycle defects) Trauma Burns Rhabdomyolysis (muscle breakdown)

Question 40

What are the 3 types of buffer systems?

Answer 40

The three primary biological buffer systems are the bicarbonate buffer system, the phosphate buffer system, and the protein buffer system. These systems work together to maintain blood pH homeostasis by neutralizing acids and bases.

Question 41

Is renal compensation a fast or slow process for acid base balance correction?

Answer 41

Renal compensation for acid-base imbalance is a slow process that takes hours to days to become fully effective, in contrast to the rapid response of the respiratory system. The kidneys achieve this by altering bicarbonate reabsorption and hydrogen ion excretion to restore blood pH over a longer period, making it a crucial mechanism for long-term acid-base balance.

Question 42

What is the function of the pituitary gland?

Answer 42

The pituitary gland functions as the body's "master gland" by producing and regulating hormones that control growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress response, blood pressure, and water balance. It sends chemical messengers throughout the body via the bloodstream to direct other glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes, to release their own hormones.

Question 43

What is the function of the anterior pituitary gland?

Answer 43

The anterior pituitary gland's function is to produce and release six key hormones that regulate crucial body functions, including growth (Growth Hormone), reproduction (FSH and LH), thyroid function (TSH), adrenal function (ACTH), and milk production (Prolactin). These hormones are controlled by releasing and inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus and act directly on target cells or stimulate other endocrine glands to release their own hormones.

Question 44

What is the thyroid?

Answer 44

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped endocrine gland located in the front of the neck, below the Adam's apple. -Produces two hormones: thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) -Regulates metabolism, growth, development, and energy levels -Controls heart rate, body temperature, and muscle function -Helps maintain calcium balance through the production of calcitonin

Question 45

What is the effect of negative feedback on the endocrine system?

Answer 45

Negative feedback in the endocrine system acts like a thermostat, reducing the production of a hormone once its levels become too high or increasing its production when levels are too low, thereby maintaining homeostasis.

Question 46

What is the location of glucocorticoid secretion?

Answer 46

Glucocorticoids are secreted from the adrenal cortex, specifically from the zona fasciculata, which is the middle layer of the cortex. This secretion occurs in response to stimulation by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the pituitary gland and plays a key role in the body's response to stress and the regulation of metabolic functions.

Question 47

What type of molecules are prostaglandins?

Answer 47

Prostaglandins are lipid molecules, specifically a type of cyclic fatty acid, that act as hormone-like substances with diverse effects on the body, such as regulating blood pressure, causing inflammation, and inducing uterine contractions.

Question 48

What medications block the effect of prostaglandins?

Answer 48

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the primary medications that block the effect of prostaglandins by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme responsible for their production. Common examples include aspirin, ibuprofen (Advil®, Motrin®), and naproxen (Aleve®). Some NSAIDs, like celecoxib (Celebrex®), are selective COX-2 inhibitors designed to target inflammation without the broader side effects of non-selective NSAIDs.

Question 49

What cells are required for Insulin to function and where are the cells located?

Answer 49

Insulin requires beta cells to be produced and function. These beta cells are located in the pancreas within clusters of cells called pancreatic islets. After beta cells release insulin into the bloodstream, insulin acts to allow cells, particularly in muscle and adipose (fat) tissue, to take up blood sugar for energy, helping to regulate overall blood glucose levels.

Question 50

What effect does melatonin have?

Answer 50

Melatonin affects the endocrine system by modulating pituitary gland function, regulating circadian rhythms, impacting energy metabolism, and influencing the immune system and the reproductive system. It acts on specific receptors in various tissues, including the brain and peripheral organs, to synchronize physiological processes with environmental light cycles.

Question 51

What gland produces the melatonin hormone?

Answer 51

The pineal gland is the primary gland that produces the hormone melatonin. This small, pinecone-shaped gland is located in the center of the brain and plays a key role in the body's sleep-wake cycles by secreting melatonin in response to darkness and decreasing its production in the presence of light.

Question 52

What are the three P's for signs and symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus?

Answer 52

The three P's of Diabetes Mellitus are Polyuria, Polydipsia, and Polyphagia. These symptoms refer to excessive urination (polyuria), excessive thirst (polydipsia), and excessive hunger (polyphagia). They are caused by the body's attempt to remove excess glucose, which leads to dehydration and cellular starvation despite high blood sugar levels.