T3: PSYC 309 > Problem Solving > Flashcards

Problem Solving Flashcards

(60 cards)

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1
Q

problem solving

A

= the effort directed toward finding ways to overcome obstacles in order to obtain one’s goals

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2
Q

____ need to be determined and enacted in order to move from a ________ state to a _______ state

A

operators
given state
goal state

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3
Q

what are 3 simple problems?

A
  • tower of Hanoi
  • cryptarithmetics or puzzles (snowflake + snowflake)
  • 9 dot problem
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4
Q

what are these 3 simple problems example of

A

routine problems where the solution is KNOWN
–> it might take a bit to get there but we will

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5
Q

non-routine complex problems

A

we don’t know the solution
–> more difficult
–> may contain many goals or solutions that are interdependent

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6
Q

what are well defined problems

A

given state, goal state and operators are well specified (ie, maths)

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7
Q

what are ill defined problems

A

these parts are poorly delineated

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8
Q

what are 3 ways that we solve problems?

A
  • insights
  • transfer solutions
  • heuristics
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9
Q

insights

A

describes the process of suddenly gaining a solution to a problem (aha moment)
–> particularly common for creative solutions

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10
Q

what do we require for insight?

A

cognitive flexibility, visualization

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11
Q

transfer solution

A

learning how to solve one problem that generalizes to solving others

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12
Q

what is analogical reasoning

A

way of find solutions by transferring their knowledge from other problems
–> requires us to recognize similarities between new and old problems

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13
Q

heuristics

A

shortcuts or simple strategies to solve problems

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14
Q

what are the 3 main heuristics that we use?

A
  • random trial and error
  • hill climbing
  • means-end analysis
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15
Q

random trial error

A

randomly selecting and applying different potential solutions until a problem is solved . often unsuccessful and frustrating

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16
Q

hill climbing

A

the process of choosing one solution and then iteratively improving it to move the problem solver closer to the goal state.

–> used a lot in AI and training algorithms

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17
Q

means-end analysis

A

the process of identifying the difference between the current state and the goal state and creating subgoals that can be achieved more easily and iteratively reduce the difference between the 2 states

–> used in complex problems but requires us to know the goal state

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18
Q

what can we see in problem solving, experts vs novices? why is this?

A

experts solve problems in their domain in expertise better than novices
–> because they can notice meaningful patterns that wouldn’t be obvious to novices

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19
Q

what is the difference between expert and novice knowledge?

A

expert knowledge seems more specific and contextualized
–> allows them to better organize, represent and interpret material

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20
Q

what can we see in chess regarding experts and novices?

A

if the pieces are arranged in meaningful ways, experts have much better memory than novices, likely due to chunking info in a way that reflects their deeper understanding

–> if the pieces are arranged randomly, they perform similar to novices, showing that its not an intrinsic ability

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21
Q

master’s game

A

a game that actually has meaning and possible moves. Easier for experts to chunk, contextualize and remember.

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22
Q

situated cognition

A

=the idea that thinking is shaped by its physical and social context. it is important that these skills are transferrable

–> In a study with children who were street vendors were good at solving arithmetic problems involved in their transactions but performed poorly in school

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23
Q

what is creativity?

A

the generation of a novel product or idea that is useful for some purpose
–> very hard to operationalize

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24
Q

what are 4 factors relevant to creativity?

A
  • person
  • press
  • product
  • process
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25
person
within-individual characteristics like personality and motivation --> more creative with intrinstic motivation
26
press
environmental factors and/or perceived pressure --> ie, environments that foster creativity
27
product
output, what we're actually creating --> BUT there is a distinction between productivity and creativity --> the most creative individuals are not always the most productive
28
process
actual creative process, 'creative cognition'
29
what are 3 steps within process?
1. problem finding 2. problem identification 3. problem definition and redefinition
30
problem finding
creative cognitive processes geared towards finding new ways to frame questions and noticing unrecognized needs and problems
31
problem identification
people notice a problem in need of a solution
32
problem definition and redefinition
people develop an approach to render the problem tractable or manageable
33
what are 2 creativity tests?
- remote associations - divergent thinking
34
remote associations
creative ideas that are removed or remote from the original formulation of a problem
35
who created the remote associations test, and what are some examples?
Sarnoff Mednick --> how many uses for a brick --> what is the common link for rat/blue/cottage
36
what is one issue with the remote associations test?
can be quite hard to standardize
37
what is one perspective regarding how we think creatively?
hierarchies of association --> some words are easier to associate than others --> particularly creative individuals have flat hierarchies, ie less obvious associations are just as accessible as non obvious ones
38
what do remote associations tests often require us to do?
overcome functional fixedness = =tendency for our thinking to be boxed in by predefined uses and associations
39
divergent thinking
our ability to generate a wide range of associations from a given starting point --> also associated with creative cognition
40
how do we often measure divergent thinking? what are 2 versions of this?
Torrance Test of creative thinking --> verbal v figural
41
verbal
participants view pictures and need to respond to it in writing for different activities, such as providing ideas for product improvement and unusual uses
42
figural
participants asked to construct pictures incorporating a given shape and to use incomplete figures to piece together a cohesive object or picture
43
what 5 factors are scored in the Torrence test?
- fluency (=number of ideas) - originality - degree of elaboration - abstractedness - psychological openness
44
what is one belief about the structure of creative cognitions?
2 stage process Idea generation Idea evaluation
45
idea generation
proposed to occur during states of diffuse attention ie when one is unfocused
46
idea evaluation
n involves the application of cognitive control and focused attention
47
where are decisions typically amde?
in social settings --> Each party wants to maximize their gain while still having a transaction happenth
48
theory of mind
ability to consider what the other party is thinking
49
what is a unique feature of human societies, and what in turn does this depend on?
cooperation (=Allows us to achieve a public good or an outcome that benefits the group as a whole) depends on social norms (=standards of behavior based on widely shared beliefs about how individual group members should behave)
50
what are 2 games that we use to observe cooperation?
ultimatum game prisioners game basically the same thing just different stories lol
51
ultimatum game
2 players: proposer and responder Proposer has to divide $10 between the 2, responder accepts/rejects offer Fair option would be $5 $5 but some people are greedy and suggest $8 $2 People are emotional though, so low offers are usually poorly received and rejected Even chimpanzees behave similarly in these games
52
prisoner's game
2 players, A and B choice between staying silent (serve 1 year) or betraying the other (betrayer goes free, other stays 3 yrs) if they both betray, they both serve 2 yrs the best outcome is that they both stay silent but since you can’t 100% trust what the other person is doing, you may choose to defect over time people tend to learn more about the other player and eventually get to cooperation *reveals why people may act selfishly
53
what typically happens over time?
people start cooperating --> but this can be messed up if one person starts defecting
54
what can we see in the brain at an individual level after coopeartion?
activates brain parts associated with rewards --> we're literally wired to cooperate
55
do we care about fairness?
YES, a lot --> In fMRI, the brain area typically activated by negative emotions is more active when responders receive an unfair offer for consideration and tend to reject these offers
56
when do people tend to behave differently in cooperation games?
whey they have less capacity for theory of mind, ie, children with autism --> they tend to make more low-ball offers
57
what is trust
= a social and emotional behaviour that is indispensable in social interactions from friendships to economic exchanges to politics --> literally essential in everyday life
58
trust game
To players interact as an investor ir trustee The investor must decide how much $ to give to the trustee Any amount invested will be increased by difference indices The trustee receives the entire increase and must decide how to share it TYPICALLY, trustees tend to reciprocate by transferring money back to investors Not necessarily 50/50, but enough so that both parties gain
59
when do people act differently in the trust game?
when they think they're playing against a computer --> people are more likely to accept low offers from computers --> and seem more likely to cooperate with humans
60
how can we increase an investor's trust?
by administering oxytocin --> neuropeptide, important for bonding and sexual behavior --> increased generosity
T3: PSYC 309
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