1
Q
life-long process that we learn how to interact with others. Everything we consider to be normal is
learned through socialization – we walk/talk/feed ourselves, and behavioural norms that help us fit in.
A
2
Q
what’s used to transmit culture and pass it around. Agents include organizations
and institutions that help us learn about our social world.
A
3
Q
Socialization
A
4
Q
Important agents of socialization
A
5
Q
how to care for yourself, beliefs/values/norms, how to talk to others. How wealthy parents raise kids
vs. less fortunate parents raise children. One example is trip to doctors – wealthy parents encouraged to ask questions, while less fortunate unlikely to criticize doctor. Wealthy kids encouraged to challenge authority, while less wealthy kids taught to listen to authority.
A
6
Q
family
A
7
Q
important. Schools teach life skills – don’t learn from academic curriculum, but learn social skills –
importance of obeying authority, act interested, etc. Part of the “hidden curriculum”, subtly taught by teachers.
A
8
Q
School
A
9
Q
Peers
A
10
Q
teach us how to develop our behaviours. Contradict our parents at times, and influence us. Influence what
movies/music we watch and listen to.
A
11
Q
exposed to a lot of content intended for mature audiences. Enforces gender and other
stereotypes.
A
12
Q
Mass media
A
13
Q
are standards for what behaviours are acceptable, and which are not. Rules that dictate how person should
behave around certain group of people – defined by that group.
A
14
Q
vary by culture and by country. Can change with time as individual’s behaviours change.
A
15
Q
are reinforced by sanctions – rewards/punishments for behaviours in accord with or against norms.
A
16
Q
are written down,
A
17
Q
are understood but less precise and have no specific
punishments.
A
18
Q
Norms
A
19
Q
Formal norms
A
20
Q
informal norms
A
21
Q
sanctions
A
22
Q
Can be classified into 4 groups: folkways, mores, laws, and taboos. Dictate how important the norm is and
consequences for deviating.
A
23
Q
the mildest type of norm, just common rules/manners we are supposed to follow. Traditions
individuals have followed for a long time, ex. opening the door, helping a person who’s dropped item, or saying thank you. Consequences are not severe/consistent. No actual punishment.
A
24
Q
norms based on some moral value/belief. Generally produce strong feelings. Usually a strong reaction if
more is violated. Ex. truthfulness. Don’t have serious consequences.
A
25
still based on right and wrong, but have formal consequences. Ex. if you lie under oath, done something
morally wrong but also violate laws of court.
26
completely wrong in any circumstance, and violation results in consequences far more extreme than a
more. Often punishable by law and result in severe disgust by members of community. Ex. incest and
cannibalism.
27
Folkways
28
Mores
29
Laws
30
Taboos
31
When norm is violated, it’s referred to as deviance. Not negative, just individuals behaving differently from what
society feels is normal.
32
most Americans eat meat, but someone who’s vegetarian is deviant.
33
states that deviance is a learned behavior that results from continuous
exposure to others that violate norms and laws – learn from observation of others. Rejects norms/values and
believes new behavior as norm.
34
Theory of Differential Association
35
Relationships a person forms are very important – if strong relationship to someone deviant, more likely to learn
deviance than someone not.
36
behavior is deviant if people have judged the behavior and labelled it as deviant. Depends on
what’s acceptable in that society. Ex. steroids can be labelled as deviant and wrong by those who think so.
37
no big consequences, reaction to deviant behavior is very mild. Individual behaves in same
way without feeling wrong.
38
more serious consequences, characterized by severe negative reaction that results in
stigmatizing behavior.
39
if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain
certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success.
40
Labeling Theory
41
Primary deviance
42
Secondary deviance
43
Strain Theory
44
– if person is blocked from attaining a culturally accepted goal, may turn to deviance. Pushed to attain
certain goals, but may not have legitimate ways to achieve success.
45
What happens when large numbers of individuals behave in ways not in line with societal norms?
46
not the same as group behavior, because of a few reasons. First, collective behavior is time-
limited, and involves short social interactions, while groups stay together and socialize for long period of time.
47
Collective behavior
48
can be open, while groups can be exclusive.
49
have loose norms, while groups have strongly defined norms.
50
is often driven by group dynamics, such as deindividualization. Certain group dynamics can encourage people to engage in acts they may consider wrong in different circumstances.
51
deindividualization
52
3 types of collective behavior: fads, mass hysteria, and riots.
53
something that becomes incredibly popular very quickly, but loses popular just as quickly. Last for short
period of time, but reach influence of large # of people in that time. Perceived as cool/interesting by large group
of people. Good example is a “cinnamon challenge” – person has to eat large spoonful of ground cinnamon in
under a minute and posting video online.
54
large # of people who experience delusions at same time, reach more people through rumours
and fears. Often takes the form of panic reactions and negative news. Ex. severe weather warnings (mild form).
Can also be result of psychology, when large amount of people believe they have same illness despite lack of
disease – mass psychogenic illness, or epidemic hysteria. Ex. after anthrax attack in US, over 2000 false alarms.
55
characterized by large # of people who engage in dangerous behavior, such as vandalism. Chaotic and
cost cities millions in damages. Individuals who act case aside societal norms and behave in very destructive
ways, and violate laws. Often seen as a collective act of defiance/disapproval, due to perceived issue (ex. sports
game outcome).
56
Fad
57
Mass hysteria
58
Riots
59
when an organism is repeatedly exposed to one type of stimulus, ex. habituation and
sensitization.
60
Types of Learning
61
Nonassociative learning –
62
person tunes out the stimulus.
63
occurs when previously habituated stimulus is removed.
64
increase in responsiveness to a repeated stimulus.
65
when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.
66
habituation
67
Dishabituation
68
Sensitization
69
when one event is connected to another, ex. classical and operant conditioning.
70
Associative learning –
71
Neutral, Conditioned, and Unconditioned Stimuli and Responses
72
Classical Conditioning:
73
Ex. Guinea pig gets excited about carrot at first, but after time gets excited just at refrigerator door opening. Same
with every other time refrigerator door opened.
74
does not involve change in behaviour like operant conditioning. op
75
Carrot is an …..because no one had to teach guinea pig to like carrots. Triggers excitement
in guinea pig, an unconditioned response.
76
means it’s innate, and not learned.
77
it’s a learned behavior.
78
Unconditioned
79
conditioned
80
Right before guinea pig got carrot, heard refrigerator door – a neutral stimuli. Doesn’t cause excitement on its
own.
81
is produced when the neutral stimulus is presented shortly before the unconditioned stimulus –
pairing the two together. Occurs when neutral stimulus is able to elicit the same response as the unconditioned
stimulus).
82
Ex. guinea pig was conditioned to refrigerator door.
83
conditioned stimuli,
84
conditioned response.
85
Refrigerator door becomes the
86
Recall last experiment, guinea pig also responds to desk door opening because it sounds similar to the
refrigerator door – generalization. Ability of something similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response, and more similar they are the bigger the response.
87
generalization
88
allows us to make appropriate response to similar stimuli. Ex. meeting someone new who
smiles, reminds us of other smiles.
89
Guinea pig doesn’t respond to dresser drawer – discrimination, when you respond to some stimuli but not
others.
90
discrimination
91
If you open refrigerator door and don’t get a carrot anymore, over time she would no longer react
92
extinction
93
spontaneous recovery
94
But suddenly she hears refrigerator door open later, and makes a response – (when old
conditioned stimulus elicits response). Don’t know why it happens, usually infrequently and less strong.
95
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
96
Operant Conditioning:
97
Associated with B.F. Skinner
98
focuses on the relationship between behavior and their consequences, and how those in
turn influence the behaviour (classical conditioning no change in behaviour)
99
Behaviours have consequences – two types: reinforcement (increase a behavior) and punishment (decrease a
behavior)
100
something is being added to increase behavior, ex. a gas gift card for safe driving
101
taking something away to increase tendency safe behavior will occur again. Ex.
taking loud buzzing noise keeps going until you put on your seatbelt. Taking away sound of buzzer when you put on seatbelt is negative reinforcement, because taking something away in effort to increase behavior.
102
punish behaviours that are unsafe. Positive punishment means something is added
to decrease tendency something will occur again. Ex. giving speeding ticket.
103
something taken away in effort to decrease chance it’ll occur again. Ex. taking away
your license.
104
Positive reinforcement
105
Negative reinforcement
106
Positive punishment =
107
Negative punishment =
108
are innately satisfying/desirable, like food. Secondary reinforcers are those learned to be
reinforcers, such as previously neutral stimuli.
109
system of behaviour modification based on systematic reinforcement of target behaviour,
reinforcers are “tokens” that can be exchanged for other reinforcers (ex. Prizes).
110
Primary reinforcer
111
Token economy –
112
Shaping
113
“I want to learn to do a headstand” – emphasize learn. Learning through practice is …..
114
Idea is you successively reinforce behaviours that approximate the target behavior.
115
What is the target behavior? Ex. headstand.
116
Showing up to yoga class, won’t necessarily make you learn it.
117
Next, put hands on mat (downward dog). Then forearms on mat. Each is the reinforced behavior until next step.
118
Finally, put legs up – the target.
119
Schedules of Reinforcement
120
Most of our behaviours are on a partial reinforcement schedule – behavior is reinforced only some of the time.
More resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement.
121
partial reinforcement
122
ex. car salesman gets bonus every 5 cars he sells. Reinforcement only occurs after a fixed # of
responses. Contingent on # of cars sold regardless of how long it takes.
123
ex. receives pay check every 2 weeks – in this case, time is constant. Doesn’t change if he sells 1
car or 100 cars. Less incentive.
124
Reinforcement is delivered after average # of right responses has occurred. Similar to fixed-
ratio, except # changes. Just fixed-ratio but varies. Ex. bonus can be 5 cars for first bonus, 3 for second, 7 for
third, 6, then 4 etc. Average is 5.
125
Another example is slot machine.
126
Responses are reinforced after a variable amount of time has passed. Ex. bonus can come
randomly on different days.
127
Fixed-Ratio
128
Fixed-Interval
129
Variable-Ratio
130
Variable-Interval –
131
Operant Conditioning: Innate vs. Learned Behaviours
132
performed correctly the first time in response to a stimulus – they innately possess.
133
Innate behavior
134
squint or blinking
135
bugs fly towards light, can be towards or away from stimulus – a
purposeful movement)
136
rats randomly scurrying in different directions – no purpose).
137
reflexes
138
taxis
139
kinesis
140
mating dance)
141
birds flying south
142
biological
clock, waking up early to sing)
- Learned behaviours are learned through experience.
143
fixed action patterns
144
migration
145
circadian rhythms
146
are learned through experience.
147
Learned behaviours a
148
response to alarm decreases over time. Ex. curing phobia by repeated exposure to the fear
until intensity of emotional response decreases.
149
associate alarm with fire
150
consequences that follow behavior increase/decrease likelihood of behavior
happening again
151
solve a problem using past skills, the “aha” moment is insight learning
152
learned behaviour is not expressed until required
153
Habituation
154
Classical conditioning –
155
Operant conditioning
156
Insight learning
157
Latent learning-
158
Operant Conditioning: Escape and Avoidance Learning
159
escape an unpleasant stimulus ex. fire, element of surprise because you’re thrown in condition where
you have to find way to get out
160
avoid fire before it arrives
161
Escape
162
Avoidance
163
2 types of aversive control, situations where behavior is motivated by threat of something unpleasant – examples of
negative reinforcement (removing undesirable stimulus following correct behavior)
164
method for attitude/behavior change. The elaboration likelihood model explains when people will
be influenced by the content of a speech vs. more superficial features.
165
3 main characteristics that impact on how we are persuaded for/against a message:
166
message itself, clarity, how well thought message it. Also includes how well written
it was, does speaker have good grasp of grammar, appropriate vocabulary, length of talk, etc.
167
what is their level of expertise, trustworthy, and is information credible or not.
Physical environment, venue of event.
168
characteristics of listener such as mood, self-esteem, alertness, intelligence, etc. How
we receive a message.
169
Message characteristics
170
Source characteristics –
171
Target characteristics –
172
According to model, we process info along 2 target paths: central and peripheral routes.
173
Central
174
Peripheral
175
people are persuaded by the content of the argument. Leads to deep processing of information.
Results in a lasting attitude change. People will only choose this route when they are interested in the topic.
176
don’t care about topic, little motivation/interest. Leads to shallow processing of information, such
as the speaker’s looks. Creates a temporary attitude change.
177
the interaction between a person’s behaviours, personal factors (motivation), and
environment.
178
Reciprocal Determinism
179
view behaviours as being influenced by people’s actions/cognitions and their social
context. Talking about interactions between individual and situation they’re in.
180
Social-Cognitive Theory
181
Cognition -> Environment -> Behavior
182
Ex. Meg is interested in soccer (cognition), joins a soccer team (environment), and spends time with soccer
players (behavior).
183
Or, she can spend a lot of time with soccer players, become interested in it, and joins a soccer team. Behavior
leads to a cognition.
184
Other direction: hangs with soccer players, so she joins a soccer team , and then after a while develop a real
interest in soccer, which then reinforces her hanging with the team.
185
This theory was developed by Bandura (same scientist who did work on observational learning).
186
Locus of Control, Learned Helplessness, and the Tyranny of Choice)
187
Personal Control
188
Important element of social cognitive theory is personal control. Internal or external.
189
- I should have studied harder – internal locus of control, can control fate of own destiny
190
That was an unfair test – external locus of control, perceive outside forces that help to control your fate
191
Those internal achieve more in school/work, cope better with stress and lower depression. External do not as well
and higher rates of depression.
192
when tone is sounded dogs receive electric shock, but could press button to stop the shock.
Group 2 had no way to turn off the shocks.
193
Learned helplessness
194
internal locus of control,
195
external locus of control,
196
After, dogs placed in new environment and had 2 sides separated by low partition in middle. Given electric
shocks, but dogs in group 1 learned to escape shock by jumping over barrier. Dogs in group 2 didn’t try to escape the shock.
197
Therefore, uncontrollable bad events can lead to a perceived lack of control, which leads to general helpless
behavior.
198
Increasing people’s control over very small things, like TV remote can increase the health and well-being of people in
nursery homes.
199
What about too much control? Too many choices can also negatively impact our cognition and behavior – the
200
tyranny of choice.
201
Ex. too many choices at stores
202
Those who had to pick 1/6 were more satisfied with their behavior, those who had to pick 1/30 less happy with
their choice.
203
One result is information overload, and can lead people to decision paralysis and increased regret over choice
made.
204
Personal control is important, any control people have on environment even a little has good effect on well-being.
On other hand too much is not good either.
205
The ability to control our impulses and delay gratification.
206
Humans have desires which aren’t necessarily bad, but they can become a temptation (when they conflict with our
long-term values and goals).
207
Self-Control
208
209
So self-control is focussing on long-term goals while putting off short-term temptations.
210
The most famous experiment is commonly referred to as the marshmallow test. Kids in preschool given
marshmallow and could eat it whenever, but if they waited 15 minutes they could get another marshmallow.
211
Some ate it right away, but other kids licked it.
212
Those who were able to wait tended to have better life outcomes when followed 10 years later.
213
idea that self-control is a limited resource. If you use a lot of it it can get used up, and less to use in
the future.
214
Ego depletion
215
Demonstrated by experiment that those who resisted eating cookies ended up giving up sooner on another
unrelated task that also requires self-control.
216
Muscle is used as a metaphor for self-control. Can be strengthened, but also depleted.
217
Training self-control in one area can improve it in other areas.
218
How to improve self-control
219
moving snacks to more difficult to reach shelf.
220
reinforcing good behaviours with rewards. Positive/negative reinforcement or
punishment.
221
ex. eat healthy chocolate every time you crave chocolate.
222
Removing something completely is problematic. Can make you want it more, and leads to ego
depletion.
223
Change environment
224
Operant conditioning
225
Classical conditioning
226
Deprivation how someone perceives/evaluates themselves, aka self-awareness.
227
228
Self-concept
229
230
Development of self-concept has 2 parts: first, an existential self and then a categorical self.
231
most basic part of self-concept, the sense of being separate and distinct from others.
Awareness that the self is constant throughout life.
232
comes once baby realizes they’re separate – becoming aware that even though we’re
separate, we also exist in the world with others. And each of those entities have properties.
233
Existential self
234
Categorical self Ex. age and gender are first babies learn, then skills and size. Then compare ourselves with others –
traits, comparisons, careers.
235
236
believed self-concept had 3 different components.
237
Carl Rogers (Humanistic Theory)
238
what we believe we are
239
how much value we place on ourselves
240
what we aspire to be
241
When the ideal self and real self are similar, the result is a positive self-concept. When the ideal self does not match the real self, the result is incongruity.
242
Self-image:
243
Self-esteem
244
Ideal-self:
245
We can use the social identity theory – 2 parts: personal identity and social identity
246
incongruity
247
social identity theory –
248
All humans categorize ourselves and others without really realizing it, ex. race/job/etc
249
• If we assign categories to others, we make pre-judgements about them.
250
Next is identification. When we adopt identity of group, we see us as belonging – behaving and acting like the
category we belong to, ex. a student. Our self-esteem starts to become bound with this group identification and
sense of belonging.
251
Final step is social comparison – how we comparing ourselves with other groups, to maintain our self-esteem.
Critical to understanding of prejudice, because once two groups develop as rivals, we compete to maintain self-
esteem.
252
253
254
255
comparison
256
identification
257
respect and regard one has for oneself
258
belief in one’s abilities to succeed in a particular situation. Developed by Bandora due to his
dissatisfaction with idea of self-esteem.
259
People with strong self-efficacy recover quickly from setbacks, have strong interest, strong sense of
commitment, and enjoy challenging tasks (RISE)
260
People with weak self-efficacy focus on personal failures, avoid challenging tasks, quickly lose confidence in
personal abilities, and believe they lack the ability to handle difficult tasks and situations (FALL)
261
Look at these sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy:
262
Self-esteem
263
Self-efficacy
264
Look at these sources to determine if person has strong/weak sense of self-efficacy:
265
strengthens self-efficacy
266
seeing people like ourselves complete the same task
267
when someone says something positive to you, helps overcome self-doubt
268
learning how to minimize stress and control mood in difficult situations can
improve self-efficacy
269
Mastery of experience
270
Social modeling –
271
Social persuasion –
272
Psychological responses
273
A person with low self-esteem can have high self-efficacy, and vice versa. Ex. a perfectionist can have low self-
esteem but still see themselves as capable of doing tasks.
274
the extent to which people perceive they have control over events in their lives.
275
when person believes he or she can influence events/outcomes. Results come primarily from their
own actions.
276
attribute events to environmental events/causes.
277
Locus of control
278
Internal
279
External
280
The theories of changes that occur in a lifespan, and each stage builds up over another.
281
Overview of Theories of Development
282
Proposed the psychosexual theory of development.
283
Believed early childhood was the most important age/period it developed. Plays large role in personality
development.
284
if completed successfully, result is a healthy issue. If issues aren’t resolved at a certain stage, then
fixation occurs
285
Freud
285
5 stages
286
Psychosocial development theory.
287
Proposed personality/identity development occurs through one’s entire lifespan.
288
Each stage depends on overcoming a conflict, and success/failure at each stage affects overall functioning of
theory.
289
8 stages
290
Erikson
291
Sociocultural development theory
292
Child internalizes interactions with others.
293
Believed children learned actively through hands-on processes, and suggest parents/cultural
beliefs/language/attitudes are all responsible for higher function of learning.
294
Vygotsky
295
Moral development theory .
296
Focused on moral reasoning and difference between right and wrong.
297
In general, Freud and Erikson were interested in how personality develops, and Vygotsky and Kohlberg were
interested in how cognition develops
298
Kohlberg
298
Moral reasoning develops through cognitive development, and people pass through 3 stages of development (each with 2 stages) – 6 levels total
299
Proposed psychological development in childhood developed through these stages, and concept of tension and
pleasure – the build-up of tension could cause a lot of conflicts.
300
Freud’s Psychosexual Development
301
was due to concept of libido – a natural energy source that fuels mechanisms of mind. And when
fixated, can have lifelong effect well into adulthood. Libido is centered at different parts of the body at different times of development.
302
First 5 years are crucial
303
OLD AGE PARROTS LOVE GRAPES)
304
Depending on what stage we’re at, going to be different fixation of energy at certain body part.
305
For oral stage – focus is mouth. For anal stage, anus, phallic is genitals, latent is none, and genital stage is the genitals.
306
libido is centered around baby’s mouth, vital for sucking/eating. Because completely
dependent on caretakers, baby also develops sense of trust and comfort.
307
0-1 yr
308
Oral stage –
309
centered around anus, ex. toilet training. Leads to developing control/independence,
encouraging positive outcomes. Serve as basis for competent adults.
310
If fixation here, issues with dependency or aggression. Also smoking or biting fingers.
311
Anal stage
312
age 1-2
313
If fixation occurs, have problems with orderliness and messiness.
314
age 3-6, children discover difference between males and females. Oedipus complex (desire for sexual
involvement with other parent) also develops. Resoled through process of identification, where child starts to
understand and develop similar characteristics as same-sex parent.
315
If fixation occurs, cause sexual dysfunction. Oedipus complex and Electra complex at this stage.
316
no focus of libido. A period of exploration, libido present but directed into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. Important in development of social and communication skills.
- Fixation doesn’t develop into adult fixation.
317
Phallic stage
318
Latent period
319
back on libido, because individual develops strong sexual interests. Before this stage, focus on
individual needs. Now, focus on needs of others.
320
Genital stage –
321
No adult fixation – person is mentally healthy.
322
Another key difference between his and Freud’s theory was he suggested there was plenty of room for growth
throughout one’s life (not just childhood).
323
Greatly influenced by Freud, but his theory was based on culture and society
323
Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
324
Assumed a crisis can occur at each stage of development, between needs of individual and society. Successful of
8 stages results in acquisition of basic virtues and healthy personality.
325
Failure in certain stage results in reduced ability to move on to further stages.
326
If an infant’s physical and emotional needs are not met, as an adult he or she may mistrust
everyone. Virtue is hope, and failing to acquire of virtue can lead to suspicion/fear/mistrust.
327
1 yrs.
328
trust vs. mistrust.
329
Around 18 months to 3 yrs. children develop independence by walking away
from mother, what they eat, etc. Critical that parents allow children to do that. Virtue achieved is will
329
autonomy vs. shame/doubt
330
2 yrs.
331
Children feel more secure in their ability to lead others and play, so ask questions. Virtue
they reach is a sense of purpose in what they do and choices/decisions they make. If tendency to ask questions is
332
initiative vs. guilt.
333
II. 3-5 yrs.
334
Where teachers take an important role in a child’s life, and child works towards competence. Child will gain greater significance and self-esteem, and try to win approval from others. Will feel industrious, but if initiative is restricted child feels inferior. Some is good though, so child has modesty.
335
industry vs. inferiority
336
6-12.
337
Transition from childhood to adulthood, so one of most important
crisis. Want to start feeling they belong in society. In this stage, the child has to learn rules, so may re-examine
identity to figure out who they are. Body image plays big role. Virtue is fidelity, seeing oneself as unique. Can cause
rebellion/unhappiness.
338
identity vs. role confusion
339
adolescence.
340
12-18,
341
intimacy vs. isolation.
342
Try to find love and relationships. Completion leads to comfortable relationships, avoiding intimacy can lead to isolation/loneliness.
343
so settle down, make families the center of their lives, and sense of being part of
bigger picture.. Adults feel like they give back through raising children/work/community activities, so develop sense
of care for others. Negative outcome is they feel stagnate and unproductive.
344
65
345
slowing in productivity. Contemplate on lives, reminisce. May feel guilt about past or
unaccomplished, dissatisfied. Virtue is wisdom, but if we feel unproductive leads to despair/dissatisfaction upon
death.
346
40-65,
347
Studied the role social interaction plays in development of cognition.
348
Vygotsky Sociocultural Development
349
Focussed on social interactions between growing children and interactions with those around them in
development of higher order learning.
350
Said babies have 4 elementary mental functions:
351
Attention
352
sensation
352
perception
353
memory
353
These elementary mental functions are developed into more sophisticated and mental processes – higher
mental functions. Most develop from skillful “tutor” – a model, ex. parent/teacher.
354
Independent learning and thinking
355
Requires cooperative and collaborative dialogue from a MKO (more knowledgeable other).
356
part where most sensitive instruction/guidance should be given. Ex.
between ability of not being able to do something and being able to do something. ZPD is the link between the zone of can’t do and can do.
357
the main means by which adults transmit info to children, and a powerful tool of intellectual
adaptation. Ex. private/internal speech, when people speak out loud to themselves – happens most in children. Way for children to plan activities/strategies, and aids their development.
358
MKO (more knowledgeable other).
359
Moral theory of development, different from previous 3, but based on cognitive development similar to Vygotsy.
360
Looked at how people developed their morals, and the way moral reasoning changes as people grow.
361
Also looked at children. He told stories to children and gauged their response.
361
Kohlberg Moral Development
362
Heinz Dilemma,
363
Asked children questions like what if Heinz didn’t love his wife, if person dying was a stranger, should he
have stolen it, and should police arrest chemist for murder if woman died. ¨ After analyzing these, he came up with 3 moral stages, each split into 2.
364
reasoning is based on physical consequences of actions, so obeying the rules is a
means to avoid punishment.
364
Pre-Conventional (pre-adolescent)
365
recognize not just one right view by authorities, different individuals have
different viewpoints.
366
Obedience vs. Punishment
367
Individualism and Exchange
368
Conventional
369
Authority is internalized, but not questioned, and reasoning is based on group
person belongs. Individual is good in order to be seen as good by others, emphasis on conformity.
370
Good Boy and Good Girl
371
maintaining social order, child is aware of wider roles of society and obeying laws.
372
Law and Order –
373
Individual becomes aware that even though rules and laws exist for greater good, there are
times this law works against interest of particular people.
374
Ex. for Heinz, is protection of life more important than breaking/stealing? People at this stage said yes.
375
people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law,
and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi.
376
Universal Ethical Principle
377
people develop own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law,
and principles apply to everyone. People who uphold and believe in these have to be prepared to act towards these even if they have to obey consequences. Very few people who reach this stage, ex. Ghandi.
378
Universal Ethical Principle
379
Trust vs mistrust
380
hope
381
will
382
purpose
383
competence
384
didelity
385
fidelity
386
love
387
care
388
wisdom
389
fear, suspicion
390
shame
391
inadquacy
392
inferoirty
393
rebellion
394
isolation, unhappy
395
unproductive
396
dissatisfaction
The lazy OCD
flashcards
Decks in class (14)
# Cards
-
Processing the Environment260
-
Taste and Smell299
-
memory0
-
memory0
-
memory114
-
Cognition191
-
Emotion227
-
Motivation and Attitudes220
-
Theory324
-
Socialization404
-
Social Influences150
-
Social Perception – Primacy and Recency Bias500
-
Rational Choice Theory and Exchange Theory249
-
Social Movements189
