1
Q
Roles
A
A set of behaviours expected of a person occupying a specific social context
***similar to the athlete leadership
2
Q
Components of roles
A
- ranging from task and social
- involving formal and informal processes
- complex and nuanced construct (due to the way roles are assigned, and how athletes perceive their role
3
Q
2 integrated approaches to understanding types of roles within a team
A
- Role functions
- Role responsibilities
4
Q
Role functions
A
What the various roles provide to the team; what they bring to the table
- more specific types of roles
- how role contributes to the teams
5
Q
Ex of Role functions
A
closer in basketball, or setter in volleyball
- very clear to the task and specific
6
Q
Role responsibilities
A
How responsibilities are determined; expectations of those people holding the roles
- coaching assign them or self-assigned?
7
Q
Specialized task role
A
proficiency with a specific skill set (ie. setter in vball)
8
Q
Types of role functions
A
- Specialized task role
- Auxiliary task role
- Social role
- Leadership role
9
Q
Auxiliary task role
A
Supplement/augment specialized roles (ie. energy player)
- ex. backup goalie
10
Q
Social role
A
Interpersonal harmony of team
- creating social cohesion, or connecting different subgroups (social glues)
11
Q
Leadership role
A
Guide teammates towards task and social objectives (formal and informal)
12
Q
Role responsibilities - formal roles
A
- expectations specifically communicated to role occupant
- role episode model
13
Q
Role episode model main individuals involved
A
- Role sender (coach)
- Focal person (athlete)
- start with them
14
Q
Role sender (coach)
A
Expectations & Pressures
- coach has expectation which translates into pressures (they must acknowledge the pressures associated with the roles)
15
Q
Focal person
A
Experience & Response
- based on pressures, they must gauge why they are in the role (experience)
- will have a response to the role, based on pressures, either agree or disagree
16
Q
Factors that impact role episode model
A
- personality factors (relationship between coach and athlete)
- organizational factors (ie. team size)
- interpersonal factors (ie. communication)
17
Q
Role responsibilities - informal roles
A
- products of interactions and observations from team members
- typically supplement or resist formal role structure
18
Q
What are informal roles related to?
A
Personality characteristics
- team comedians typically extraverted
- team distractors less conscientious /dependable
- mentors lower levels of neuroticism
19
Q
Informal role usefulness continuum - from least to most useful
A
- Bad apple
- Distracter
- Comedian
- Social convener
- Spark plug (Energy)
- Team player
- Mentor
20
Q
Role concepts - how do athletes experience roles?
A
- Role performance
- Role satisfaction
- Role clarity
- Role efficacy
- Role conflict
- Role commitment
21
Q
Role performance/behaviour
A
effectiveness with which athletes have executed their role and responsibilities
- evaluated by subjective coach ratings (whether or not coach believes you are doing what you are set out to do (fulfilling role?)
22
Q
Role satisfaction/affect
A
Satisfaction with the degree to which their role:
- utilized their skill set
- had significance for their team
- was personally meaningful
- was evaluated in terms of its execution
- allowed for autonomy in determining appropriate behaviours
- was recognized as important by others
23
Q
What has role satisfaction been linked to?
A
Improved perceptions of task cohesion, role efficacy and role clarity
- the more people enjoy their roles, the better
24
Q
Role clarity
A
- the scope of their responsibilities
- the behaviours necessary
- how performance will be evaluated
- consequences of not meeting expectations
***do you understand what is being asked of you?
24
4 Role cognitions
1. Role clarity
2. Role efficacy
3. Role conflict
4. Role commitment
25
Role efficacy
- athletes beliefs in their abilities to fulfill interdependent role expectations
- associated with role performances
***do you have the belief that you can successfully complete the role? previous experience?
26
Role conflict
Incongruent expectations for role responsibilities
-any disagreement with your roles
27
Types of role conflict
1. Intra-sender conflict
2. Inter-sender conflict
3. Inter-role conflict
4. Person-role conflict
28
Intra-sender conflict
Reception of conflicting role info from one source (eg. head coach)
29
Inter-sender conflict
Two or more role senders (coach vs parent) communicate conflicting info to an athlete
30
Person-role conflict
Individual’s values and motivation do not match expected role (eg. introverted athlete asked to provide verbal encouragement and leadership)
***do not align with the role and believe KSA's are better off somewhere else
30
Inter-role conflict
Two or more roles cause interference for an individual’s ability to meet the expectations for at least one of those roles (eg. student-athlete, parent-coach)
- have practice, but also have an assignment due, two roles conflict and have to choose what takes priority
31
Role commitment
Dynamic and volitional psychological bond reflected in the dedication and responsibility for one’s role
- up to athlete
32
Commitment continuum
level of acceptance determine where athlete sits on commitment continuum
- influenced by internal and external forces
33
Norms
Set of assumptions held by members of a group concerning behaviour that is expected of other members
- offer structure and expectations for teams
34
Why are norms an essential component to groups?
Provide social structure and represent one of the key features that distinguishes a group from a random collection of individuals
35
How are norms positively reinforced?
Individuals who behave appropriately are rewarded through verbal appreciation, greater prestige in group and increased group acceptance
36
How are norms negatively reinforced?
Inappropriate behaviour is sanctioned through verbal criticism, ostracism, physical abuse or even expulsion from group
37
What are some problems with norms?
not all good, can be negative (ie. hazing, anti-social behaviour, bullying)
38
Norm appropriateness
prescribed vs proscribed
39
Prescribed norms
Sets the standards for behaviour (ie. arriving early to practice)
- things that are positive or beneficial for teams
40
Proscribed norms
Described behaviours that are inappropriate (ie. arrive late, hazing)
- things you don't want the team to do
41
Norm expectations
Preferred vs Permissive
42
Preferred norms
Desired BUT not required (eg. prosocial behaviours towards teammates)
43
Permissive norms
Permitted but not expected (eg. antisocial behaviours towards opponents)
- if it happens, allow it, but not expect it (ex. taking penalties)
44
General types of norms
- punctuality
- focus/concentration
- dress code
- support teammates
- effort
45
General settings that the types of norms may differ
- practice
- competition
- social situations
- off-season
46
What is the importance of norms?
They are informative (WHAT) and integrative (WHY)
47
How are norms informative?
Identify behavioural standards
(eg. snowbirds hard on each other from the get go)
48
How are norms integrative?
Knowing standards enables understanding of group values, priorities and facilitates adjustment
49
What does norms being informative and integrative lead to?
1. Facilitate performance
2. Establish shared reality/expectations
3. Help avoid/curtail problems
4. Promote/sustain group values
***when they work together it is most beneficial
50
General characteristics of norms
1. Descriptive
2. Evaluative
3. Informal
4. Unobtrusive
5. Flexible
6. Internalized
7. Stable
51
How are norms descriptive?
Represent group beliefs
- ex. arriving on time, shows the team has respect
52
How are norms evaluative?
Put priorities (values) on things
53
How are norms informal?
Rarely formally laid out
54
How are norms unobtrusive?
Typically taken for granted until violated
- norms are there, but don't know what they are until they are broken
55
How are norms flexible?
Permit minor deviations in behaviour
- ex. drinking when graduating
56
How are norms internalized?
Adhered to volitionally
- norms are followed willingly, driven by internal motivation
57
How are norms stable?
Take a long time and a lot of effort to change
58
Rules of thumb for conformity to norms
1. Number of people in "outgroup"
- conformity/importance increases as number of outgroups increases
2. Number of ingroup members in support
- conformity/importance increases as number of supporters increases
3. Ambiguity of norms
- conformity/importance decreases as ambiguity increases
4. Leadership relevance
- conformity/importance increases as leadership becomes more democratic
59
Number of people in the outgroup example
Norms of being a Canadian would rise, with being a Canadian athlete
60
Number of ingroup members in support example
More people on your team and buying into the norms, the more likely the norms will be increased and norms become more important
61
Ambiguity of norms example
Don't have time to establish the norms of the group (All-star game)
62
Examples of how norms aren’t always good in sport
- playing through injury
- hazing
63
Research example- Graupensperger study #1
Athletes with higher social identity are more likely to conform to team norms
64
Research example- Graupensperger study #2
Athletes who perceived higher levels of peer acceptance held riskier attitudes (alcohol use, hazing, playing through concussion)
65
Research example- Graupensperger study #3
Found an association between self-reported alcohol use and subjective peer alcohol use
66
Research examples- Hodge
- case study with New Zealand All Blacks
- emphasis on exploring motivational climate that led to 2011 world cup win
67
Hodge Results- 8 broad themes
1. Critical turning points
2. Flexible/evolving climate
3. Dual-management model
4. Better people make better all blacks
5. Responsibility
6. Leadership
7. Expectation of excellence
8. Team cohesion
68
Critical turning points
- events involving drinking and antisocial behaviour (deeper cultural issue)
- missing 2007 major competition (lack of leadership)
- want people who are good people to be, not just best players
69
Flexible/evolving climate
Shift to more democratic leadership approach, involving athletes
- understanding and flexible
70
Dual-management model
- two leadership groups (coach group and athlete group)
- give more ownership to athletes
- lots of communication between athlete leaders and coach leaders
71
Better people make better all blacks
- top priority norm within organization
- wanted to make sure these people were better people
- looking for good people, recruitment was looking at what these people are like when they are not playing rugby (what do you do outside of the rugby field?)
72
Responsibility
- empowerment, ownership and accountability
- reinforce that the athletes contribute to the team uniquely
- increased social identity
73
Leadership
- leadership groups have own system/structure
- on-field shared leadership
- athletes had direct involvement in season/campaign planning
74
Expectation of excellence
- challenge and personal meaning
- wanted to be best in the world every day
- legacy/history
75
Team cohesion
- Wanted their team to run as one
- Horizontal coaching
- Alignment and clarity between roles and norms
- "Keep it fresh" - would change practice plans and the way they did things
- Enjoyment of fun
- The love of the game
76
What are subgroups/cliques?
- tightly knit group of individuals that contain reciprocating relationships
- belong to a total group with unique level of interdependence from that group
77
Characteristics of subgroups/cliques
- belong to superordinate group
- clearly discernible from that group
- reciprocating relationships
78
Why do subgroups/cliques emerge?
1. Identity/belonging
2. Position/status
3. Context/Inadvertent
79
FIRO theory
People want inclusion and control which is easier in smaller groups
79
Identity/belonging
- FIRO theory
- optimal distinctiveness theory
80
Optimal distinctiveness theory
People want acceptance and quality relations, balanced with differentiation and autonomy
81
Position/status
People seek identity, resources, and info to improve status
ex. gravitate towards leaders
82
Context/inadvertent
Faultline theory
83
Faultline theory
People group together unintentionally based on hypothetical dividing lines present in all groups
84
Examples of grouping based on the faultline theory
- age
- gender
- skill level
85
What do subgroups/cliques do/influence negatively?
- antisocial or delinquent behaviours
- substance abuse
- unhealthy eating behaviours
- isolation/self-esteem
- unethical behaviours
86
What do subgroups/cliques do/influence positively?
- prosocial behaviours
- self-esteem
- sense of meaning
- knowledge, behaviours, attitudes
- group functioning
87
What have subgroups/cliques been associated with in sport?
- athlete stress
- intra-team conflict
- performance issues
88
What has team building research focused on regarding subgroups/cliques?
- coaches suggest breaking up of cliques
- factions and cliques divide loyalties
- cliques isolate members
89
Significance of the presence of subgroups/cliques in sport
resolves less around the noticeable smaller grouping of athletes, but rather WHY or HOW these groupings develop and WHAT extent they impact athletes and teams
90
What is the general advocacy for subgroups/cliques in sport research?
Avoidance/disbandment
91
What does avoiding subgroups/cliques overlook?
Overlooking:
- complexity of subgroups
- potential benefits for group functioning
92
What is the current understanding of subgroups/cliques informed by other fields?
No clear understanding of the…
- nature of subgroups/cliques
- influence on athlete experience and group functioning
- strategies for management
93
Purpose of preliminary exploratory studies
Examine the nature of subgroups/cliques in sport through interviews
94
General results of preliminary exploratory studies
General organizing framework for subgroups/cliques
95
Sections of subgroups/cliques framework
1. Basic assumptions
2. Antecedents/precursors
3. Nature of groupings
4. Consequences
96
Basic assumptions of subgoups/cliques
- Inevitability
- Variability
97
Antecedents/precursors of subgoups/cliques
- Circumstantial/contextual factors (ex. injured players)
- Athlete demographics/characteristics
- General behavioural tendencies
98
Nature of groupings
Subgroup vs clique
99
Consequences of subgroups
- Identifiable subunits
- Facilitative
- Non-value laden
100
Consequences of cliques
- Identifiable subunits
- Debilitative
- Exclusive/ostracism
- Own agenda
101
What were the coach behaviours identified by the preliminary exploratory studies?
- Proactive avoidance
- Subgroup identification
- Subgroup management
102
Take home points of early subgroups/cliques research
- Inevitability of subgroups
- Innate need to belong is not satisfied at team level
- Clique identification/management is not all or nothing
103
Longitudinal case studies general purpose
Conduct longitudinal, repeated interview case studies to examine awareness and perceptions of subgroups/cliques over time
104
Wagstaff longitudinal study results
1. Awareness and understanding
2. Development over time
3. Subgroups/cliques influence
4. Management
105
Wagstaff- awareness and understanding
- overt consideration/awareness within the team
- newbie athlete wariness/uncertainty
- inevitable and facilitative
106
Wagstaff- development over time
Variability in both membership and behaviour
- early membership based on cohort
- late season based on interests, leadership, status, training requirements
- membership flexibility and “tipping points”
107
Wagstaff- subgroups/cliques influence
Clear differentiation between subgroups and cliques
- "a rugby team is too big to be one group"
108
Wagstaff - subgroups
Innocuous/harmless and inevitable
109
Wagstaff- cliques
- exclusive
- antisocial
- destabilizing
- conflict oriented
110
What was a common consensus among clique members in Wagstaff longitudinal study?
that their behaviours were facilitative and acceptable
111
Wagstaff- management
- monitor subgroups, manage cliques
- require coach and athlete input and authentic management
- don't force it, let it happen naturally
112
Saizew longitudinal study results
- Variability based on performance
- Team structure
- Proactive/consistent effort
113
Saizew- variability based on performance
- groupings changed based on successful performance
- early on groupings based on superficial factors but as time goes on they are more value based
114
Saizew- team structure
- structural constraints impact interactions
- sport type, facility/schedule limitations, team size
115
Saizew- proactive/consistent effort
- managing subgroups and cliques
ex. leadership groups, purposeful team building, superordinate objectives
116
Take home points from longitudinal studies
- athletes aware of subgroup membership (tipping points is when these were most prominent)
- desire for authentic management
117
What is there a need for when understanding subgroups/cliques?
- self-reflection and understanding of own behaviours
- proactive behaviours contingent on sport stucture/context
118
What does the perceptual components of the subgroup/clique research mean?
significance of groupings is likely in the eye of the beholder
- perception is key
119
What is the purpose of perception components?
establish an understanding of how athletes perceive and experience subgroups
120
What is the process of determining the perceptual components of subgroups/cliques?
1. Literature review
2. Conceptual model creation
121
Perceptual components conceptual model
1. focus group w athletes
2. expert researcher review process
3. critical appraisal of revisions by experts and athletes
122
The interaction of which two factors leads to the athlete subgroup experience?
1. Observability (what is observed)
2. Behaviours (interpretation of actions)
123
Sub-dimensions of observability
1. Surface level characteristics
2. Deep level characteristics
124
Observability surface level characteristics
- program
- position
- age
125
Observability deep level characteristics
- values
- orientations
- beliefs
126
Sub-dimensions of behaviours
1.Organizational citizenship (are you a good teammate?)
2. Organizational alignment
127
Organizational citizenship
- helping
- civic virtue
- conscientiousness
- sportspersonship
128
Organizational alignment
how does the group align with the norms and roles of the organization?
129
Outcomes based on athlete subgroup experience
1. Affective
2. Cognitive
3. Behavioural
130
Why is a questionnaire useful to put this theory into practice?
1. Subgroup research has mainly been qualitative
2. Critical for understanding and advancement of constructs
3. Explore why athletes see subgroups as beneficial and understand their relation to important team processes or emergent states
131
How is a questionnaire created?
1. Item generation
2. Expert input
3. Athlete review
132
Item generation
1. Scanning and identifying relevant subgroup questionnaires
2. Engaging in brainstorming sessions as a research team based on qualitative research findings specific to subgroups in sport
133
Expert input 3 steps
1. expert receive domain descriptions to inform item responses
2. Experts report item fit alongside each domain
3. Experts provided opportunity to review and comment on other expert ratings/comments
134
Athlete review
20 athletes, purposefully recruits, think-aloud interviews
135
Athlete review - aim to obtain insight on what?
1. question content (ex. meaning, clarity)
2. presentation of items (ex. scaling, order)
136
Key takeaways from whole lecture
1. Subgroupings are not automatically a bad thing
2. They require careful consideration and planning from coaches
3. Best to include athletes in the discussion to foster autonomy and ownership
KNPE 363
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