1
Q
Group processes
A
Actual interdependent activities directed toward goal pursuit
2
Q
Emergent states
A
Properties that are typically dynamic in nature as vary as a function of team context, inputs, processes and outcomes
- emerge from what the group is doing (group has to interact first)
3
Q
Do team processes or team structures have a larger impact on emergent states?
A
Team processes
4
Q
Who is a key researcher in cohesion?
A
Dr. Albert Carron
5
Q
What are two opposite ways that people have previously thought of cohesion?
A
- Forces attracting members to the group (Cohesion)
- Resistance to group disruption (Adhesion)
6
Q
Foundational characteristics of cohesion
A
Must consider these 4 things for the definitions of cohesion
1. Multidimensional
2. Dynamic
3. Instrumental
4. Affective
7
Q
Multidimensional
A
Motives vary between members and diff groups
- everyone will experience cohesion differently
8
Q
Dynamic
A
Forces and motives change over time
- ex. when wining you are more likely to be cohesive
9
Q
Instrumental
A
Presence of purpose for formation and actions
- hard to get a group of people who don’t have a shared goal cohesive
10
Q
Affective
A
Emotional experience and ties between members
- must be some level of emotional experience between the members at the individual level
11
Q
What is the definition of cohesion?
A
An emergent state reflected in the tendency of a group to stick together and remain united in the pursuit of its instrumental objectives and the satisfaction of member affective needs
12
Q
Who was the conceptual model of cohesion developed by?
A
Carron
13
Q
What does the conceptual model of cohesion include?
A
- individual aspects (attraction to the group)
- group aspects (group integration)
- task cohesion
- social cohesion
14
Q
Individual aspects of conceptual model of cohesion
A
Beliefs group members hold about personal benefits
15
Q
Group aspects of conceptual model of cohesion
A
Beliefs group members hold about the group as a collective
16
Q
Task cohesion
A
Orientation towards achieving groups objectives
- performance, achieving goals
17
Q
Social cohesion
A
Orientation towards developing and maintaining social relations
- anything removed from performance
- positive interactions, coach-athlete relationships
18
Q
4 elements of cohesion in the conceptual model
A
- Group integration- task (GI-T)
- Group integration- social (GI-S)
- Attraction to the group- task (ATG-T)
- Attraction to the group- social (ATG-S)
19
Q
Group integration- task
A
United towards achieving instrumental objectives
- reflecting the whole team
- how united the group is towards achieving the tasks (pre-planned)
ex. our team works together to achieve our goals
20
Q
Group integration- social
A
united towards developing relationships and activities
- team-building and social events
ex. our team likes to spend time together outside of practice
21
Q
Attraction to the group- task
A
motivations toward the group instrumental objectives
- individual attraction to the group
ex. I want to win and buy into the team
- high or low motivation to complete the teams objective?
22
Q
Attraction to the group- social
A
motivations toward social relationships and activities
ex. my team gives me the chance to develop new friendships and be part of a group- which is very imp to me
23
Q
What are the different types of questionnaires that have been created to measure cohesion?
A
- Cohesion in adults (GEQ)
- Cohesion in youth/children (YSEQ/CSCQ)
24
Q
How do the two questionnaires differ?
A
Youth and children can’t differentiate between group integration and attraction to the group so they just are assessed based on task and social cohesion
25
Correlates of cohesion - why should we care?
1. Situational factors
2. Leadership factors
3. Personal factors
4. Team factors
26
Situational factors that influence cohesion
- contractual status
- social pressures to conform/attend
***salary
- geography (proximity, density)
- team size
27
What happens to task cohesion when group sizes are greater than 3
Decreases
- task cohesion decreases with more people
28
What happens to social cohesion when group sizes are equal to 6
Social cohesion increases
- group of 6 is highest social cohesion you can get
29
What types of leadership increase cohesion?
Democratic & transformational decision-making style
30
Which leader behaviours increase task and social cohesion?
- acceptance of group goals and teamwork
- social support
- training and instruction
- positive feedback
- individual consideration
31
How can coaches improve cohesion on their teams?
Emphasize the importance of cohesion to increase perceptions among players
32
Personal factors: levels of similarity
- surface similarity (observable qualities)
- deep similarity (unobservable qualities)
33
Results of having greater surface similarity of members
Greater social cohesion and attendance
- attendance means more likely they will come back next year
34
Results of having greater deep similarity of members
Greater task cohesion
35
Personal factors: what does increased cohesion lead to?
- satisfaction
- enjoyment
- efficacy
- effort
- social loafing
- sacrifice
- decreased stress
- decreased anxiety
- decreased dropout
36
Carron & Prapavessis (1997) study on work output
- standard warm up prior to practice
- assessed athlete’s cohesion via questionnaire (pre)
- HR and blood lactate obtained (post)
37
Results of Carron & Prapavessis study on work output
Athletes that perceived greater levels of cohesion worked harder
greater O2 consumption
38
Lewin 1943
- national research council to influence food preferences in WWII
- easier to change peoples minds in a group setting than to change them separately
39
Are common goals and friendships necessary for team success?
- not always
ex. west german men’s 8 rowing team
- olympic gold medalists and world champions but had high interpersonal conflict and cliques
40
Performance and cohesion
- better performance = greater cohesion
- greater cohesion = better performance
***reciprocal relationship
41
What is cohesion strongest for?
- task cohesion vs social
- real teams
- female teams
- high school and varsity teams vs professional
42
Perceptions of cohesion and status on successful vs less successful teams
- starters rated task cohesion higher than non-starters on less successful teams
- no differences in perception of cohesion between starters and non-starters on highly successful teams
43
Why were there no differences in perception of cohesion in highly successful teams but not in less successful teams?
If you are on a highly successful team, it doesn't matter if you are playing, you have the perception that your team is highly cohesive
44
Wise (2014)- can cohesion lead to problems
Inverse curvilinear relationship between cohesion and sales teams’ financial performance
45
Wise (2014) - what can too much cohesion lead to?
Reduction in innovation and greater groupthink
46
Hardy et al (2005) disadvantages of high task cohesion
- less enjoyment
- increased pressure
ex. Olympic hockey
47
Hardy et al (2005) disadvantages of high social cohesion
Difficult to focus on task and constructively criticize
48
Hoigaard et al (2006) - how can cohesion lead to problems?
High social cohesion combined with low task cohesion = social loafing
- need the balance between the both
49
social loathing
The more people in a group, the more likely people will do less work as they believe other people will get it done
50
Next steps in cohesion research (Eys and Brawley 2018)
1. Broadening theoretical scope
2. Exploring temporal dynamics
3. Expanding measurement approaches
4. Looking at new populations
51
Rovio et al (2010) - what do high levels cohesion lead to?
- pressure to conform (ie. hazing, doping)
- group think
- decreased performance
52
Broadening theoretical scope
Move from 1st to 3rd generation research (ie. how do we build, change cohesion)
53
Exploring temoral dynamics
Seeing how cohesion fluctuates and varies over a season
54
Expanding measurement approaches
Move beyond self report
ex. observation
55
Looking at new populations
- independent sports
- children/youth
- adapted sport
56
Key takeaways of the cohesion
1. Cohesion is a dynamic multidimensional construct involving both task and social dimensions
2. There are various questionnaires designed for its assessment which have allowed for the investigation of many different correlates
3. Too much cohesion can be problematic
57
Where does social identity fit on the course map?
Emergent states
58
Types of identity
1. personal identity (own beliefs about ourselves)
2. team identity (how we think about ourselves based on the group)
59
What did early research of group behaviour discover?
Giving people group assignments creates a tendency in the way you treat others
- the way you treat people in your group is very different in how you treat other groups
60
What is the social identity approach (SIA)
The extent to which people define themselves based on the groups to which they belong
61
Why was the social identity approach born?
From interest in intergroup perceptions (ie. prejudice, stereotyping) and how the self is conceptualized in intergroup contexts
62
Origins of the social identity approach (SIA)
1. social identity theory (how I feel about myself based on the group I belong to)
2. self-categorization theory (how people categorize themselves into a particular group)
63
Stages of the social identity approach
1. Self-categorization
2. Depersonalization
3. Self-stereotyping
64
Stages of the social identity approach: self categorization
- people begin by categorizing themselves as members of a group
- differences between themselves and members of the group are smaller than the differences between them and members of other groups
***bigger differences between people in out-group, compared to in-group
65
Stages of the social identity approach: depersonalization
- individuals see themselves and other group members as a collective rather than idiosyncratic individuals
- define themselves and others as belonging to a collective entity
66
Stages of the social identity approach: self stereotyping
Individual adopts the values that are deemed most important by their group
- I'll change my behaviour in order to match the group I belong
67
Social identity theory (SIT)
That part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from their knowledge of their membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership
68
What does it mean to have a strong social identity?
- self concept based on group
- ‘I’ and ‘me’ becomes ‘we’ and ‘us’
- adopts morals, values and behavioural norms of group
69
What is social identity motivated by?
Desire to increase self-esteem and reduce uncertainty
70
What does social identity influence?
Moral behaviour towards in-group and out-group
71
3 ways of exploring social identity
1. Cameron’s model
2. Social identity leadership
3. SI-AIM
72
Three dimensions of Cameron’s model
1. Ingroup ties
2. Cognitive centrality
3. Ingroup affect
***Totality of these things, helps us understand social identity
73
Ingroup ties - Camerons Model
Connections and bonds
- sense of belonging
74
Cognitive centrality - Cameron's model
Importance
- how much time we spend thinking about these connections and bonds, and how important they are to us
- can lead to an identity crisis (done with sport)
75
Ingroup affect -Cameron's model
Positive feelings
- come from being associated with a particular group
76
Study 1: Social identity and prosocial and antisocial behaviour in youth sport
- questionnaire
- assessed how Cameron’s categories influenced teammate and opponent prosocial and antisocial behaviours
77
Study 1 findings
Greater ingroup affect athletes were more likely to engage in being a prosocial teammate
- positive relations make you feel like you are a part of a group = prosocial behaviours
78
Study 2: Findings - mixed methods
- Greater prosocial teammate behaviour = increased social identity
- Greater antisocial teammate behaviour = decreased social identity
79
Study 2 findings sex differences
1. males reported more physical antisocial behaviour
- some antisocial behaviours exhibited by males were perceived as prosocial
2. females reported more off-ice cliques
- some females prosocial interactions were perceived by athletes as antisocial
***benefit of using mixed methods
80
Study 3: How teammate behaviours relate to athlete affect, cognition and behaviours
- daily diary
- moral behaviour received from teammates predicted moral behaviour engagement and social identity strength
81
Study 3 findings
- Greater antisocial behaviour received from teammates increased engagement in antisocial behaviour
- Greater antisocial behaviour received from teammates decreased social identity
- Greater prosocial behaviour received from teammates increased social identity (becomes more important part to social identity)
***if you feel like you are not being treated well, you feel like not part of a team and don't have a desire to be
82
Study 4: Beyond the rink- a multilevel analysis of social identity behaviours captured using the electronically activated recorder purpose
Examine the associations btwn youth athlete’s experiences receiving and engaging in behaviours indicative of ingroup ties, cognitive centrality and ingroup affect during a 3-day competitive ice hockey tournament
83
Study 4 findings
- More likely to engage in behaviours representative of ingroup affect and cognitive centrality when they received higher than average frequency of behaviours indicative of cognitive centrality from teammates, coaches and parents
- When teammates demonstrate that they are thinking about the team, they influence other members to behave in ways that promote a shared sense of us
84
Problem with an electronically activated recorder?
Works out to be a limited amount of the total observation period, may be missing out on key interactions that are not recorded
- also privacy concerns
85
Example studies summary
1. Relevance of social identity to moral behaviour in youth sport
2. Relationship between social identity and moral behaviour is complex
3. A reciprocal relationship exists between social identity and moral behaviour
86
What factors lead to increased social identity? (antecedents)
- Interdependence
- Groupness
- Leadership (leaders have a great influence on athletes = more likely greater SI)
87
Outcomes of social identity
- cohesion
- team confidence
- self-worth
- peer influence
- performance
88
Social identity leadership (SIL)
The key to successfully pulling a group together from a social identity perspective lies in the understanding and promotion of a shared sense of social identity among group members
89
SIL principles to consider
1. In-group prototype
2. In-group champion
3. Entrepreneur of identity
4. Embedder of identity
***hierarchy moving towards the final step (4)
90
In-group prototype
- understand values/demonstrate similarity
- represent group/be perceived as effective
91
In-group champion
- act in line with group’s values
- further group interests/gain influence
***what you need to do individually to contribute to the group
92
Entrepreneur of identity
- propose vision
- mobilize group toward vision
***Assisting the group in achieving the specific goals
93
Embedder of identity
- provide opportunities for vision
- realization of vision
***fully bought into the group, doing everything you can to achieve both individual and group objectives
- values transfer to other groups you are in too
94
Identity leadership
Group process that places emphasis on a leader’s ability to represent, advance, create and embed social identity that they share with their followers within a collective (“sense of us”)
95
Leader identity
Personal understanding of themselves as a leader (“me as a leader”)
- letter on a jersey, whether or not a person sees themselves as a leader
96
Social identity leadership (SIL) study
Intervention to improve SIL with Paralympic soccer team
97
What program was outlined in the SIL intervention study?
3R program
- reflecting
- representing
- realizing
98
3R program: reflecting
Think about how they would identify as a group, what is important
99
3R program: representing
How do you represent actions that align with values
- what actions are needed?
- what does it feel and look like at the individual and team level?
100
3R program: realizing
Embedding goals and values into day-to-day activities (ie.training)
- actual behaviours
101
SIL study findings
Embedding leadership improved important elements in relation to social identification and collective efficacy
- we can train SI and leadership in athletes (retention effect)
102
Social identity - Affiliation and influence model (SI-AIM)
Based on the idea that social identity amplifies the impact of youth sport experiences and developmental outcomes via two distinct pathways
103
Two pathways of social identity - affiliation model
1. Social affiliation pathway
2. Social influence pathway
104
SI-AIM model: antecedent of social identity
- individual differences
- contextual factors
- team factors
105
SI-AIM model social affiliation pathway: psychological benefits of social identity
- self-esteem
- efficacy
- belonging
- meaning
- continuity
- distinctiveness
***the more we feel we belong to a group, the more likely we will receive the direct benefits
106
SI-AIM model: social influence pathway
Motivational relevance of youth sport experiences
107
Social influence pathway?
Pressure to belong to a group
- motivational relevance is dependent on the type of influence present
- could be positive or negative
108
What is the social affiliation pathway?
Highlights proximal psychosocial benefits derived from social ties and belongingness to a peer group
109
Social affiliation pathway potential outcomes
When a person integrates a positive and stable group into their self-concept as part of their social identity this has the capacity to increase their confidence, feelings of connectedness and sense of self-worth
110
What is the social influence pathway?
- sport-related social identities can amplify the influence of others within a young person’s social environment
- social identity renders individuals more sensitive and responsive to the behaviours they observe within their team
111
Social influence pathway- What happens when social identity is salient?
Depersonalization occurs such that a persons feelings and actions are guided more by group prototypes and norms than personal factors
112
Key takeaways of social identity
1. Identity ranges from personal to social
Individuals derive identity from the groups to which they belong
2. There is mounting evidence of the impact of social identity on athletes
3. diff ways people have considered social identity in sport
KNPE 363
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