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APES Flashcards

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1
Q

Nitrogen fixation

A

What: N₂ gas → ammonia/ammonium. Why: Plants can’t use N₂ directly. How/Who: Bacteria (Rhizobium, cyanobacteria), lightning, Haber–Bosch process.

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2
Q

Nitrification

A

What: Ammonium → nitrite → nitrate. Why: Creates most plant-usable form. Who: Soil bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter).

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3
Q

Assimilation (Nitrogen)

A

What: Plants take up nitrate/ammonium → build proteins/DNA. Why: Gets N into food web. Who: Plants, consumers eat them.

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4
Q

Ammonification (Mineralization)

A

What: Organic N in waste/corpses → ammonium. Why: Recycles nitrogen. Who: Decomposers (fungi, bacteria).

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5
Q

Denitrification

A

What: Nitrate → N₂O → N₂ gas. Why: Returns N to atmosphere. Who: Anaerobic bacteria in wetlands/soils.

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6
Q

Photosynthesis (Carbon)

A

What: CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight → glucose + O₂. Why: Basis of energy flow. Who: Plants, algae, phytoplankton.

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7
Q

Respiration (Carbon)

A

What: Glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + energy. Why: Releases energy. Who: Plants, animals, decomposers.

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8
Q

Carbon exchange

A

What: CO₂ dissolves into/released from oceans. Why: Atmosphere–ocean balance.

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9
Q

Sedimentation & Burial (Carbon)

A

What: Carbon → sediments, limestone, fossil fuels. Why: Long-term storage. Who: Marine organisms, geology.

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10
Q

Extraction & Combustion (Carbon)

A

What: Fossil fuels mined/burned → CO₂. Why: Rapidly reintroduces stored C. Who: Humans.

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11
Q

Weathering (Phosphorus)

A

What: Rocks release phosphate. Why: Only natural P input. Who: Rain, erosion.

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12
Q

Assimilation (Phosphorus)

A

What: Plants absorb phosphate → DNA/ATP. Who: Plants, consumers eat them.

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13
Q

Decomposition (Phosphorus)

A

What: Organic P → inorganic phosphate. Why: Recycling. Who: Decomposers.

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14
Q

Sedimentation & Burial (Phosphorus)

A

What: Phosphorus settles into sediments/rocks. Why: Long-term storage. Who: Geology.

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15
Q

Human impact (Phosphorus)

A

What: Fertilizer runoff → eutrophication.

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16
Q

Weathering (Sulfur)

A

What: Sulfur compounds released from rocks → soil/water.

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17
Q

Volcanic emissions (Sulfur)

A

What: Volcanoes release SO₂.

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18
Q

Assimilation (Sulfur)

A

What: Plants take sulfate → proteins. Who: Plants, consumers.

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19
Q

Decomposition (Sulfur)

A

What: Organic sulfur → H₂S gas/sulfate. Who: Decomposers.

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20
Q

Oxidation/Reduction (Sulfur)

A

What: Sulfur gases → sulfate in atmosphere → acid rain.

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21
Q

Human impact (Sulfur)

A

What: Burning coal/oil → SO₂ → acid deposition.

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22
Q

Potential vs kinetic energy

A

Potential = stored, Kinetic = in motion/being used

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23
Q

How is chemical energy stored?

A

Stored in bonds between atoms

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24
Q

Joule

A

Energy used when a 1-watt device runs for 1 second

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25
Power
Rate at which work is done
26
Electromagnetic radiation
Energy emitted by Sun: visible, UV, infrared
27
Photon
Massless packet of energy that travels at speed of light
28
Temperature
Measure of average kinetic energy of a substance
29
First law of thermodynamics
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, only changes form
30
Second law of thermodynamics
Energy transformations reduce ability to do work; heat lost
31
Energy efficiency
Ratio of useful output energy to total input energy
32
Energy quality
Ease with which an energy source can be used for work
33
Entropy
Randomness in a system
34
Open system
Energy/matter can cross boundaries
35
Closed system
No exchange of energy/matter across boundaries
36
Input
An addition to a system
37
Output
A loss from a system
38
System analysis
Study of inputs, outputs, and changes under conditions
39
Steady state
Inputs = outputs; system not changing over time
40
Negative feedback loop
System returns to original state or slows change
41
Positive feedback loop
System change is amplified
42
Biosphere
Region of planet where life resides
43
Producer/Autotroph
Uses Sun’s energy to make usable energy (photosynthesis)
44
Photosynthesis
Solar energy + CO2 + H2O → glucose + O2
45
Cellular respiration
Cells unlock chemical energy
46
Aerobic respiration
Glucose + O2 → energy + CO2 + H2O
47
Anaerobic respiration
Glucose → energy without oxygen
48
Consumer/Heterotroph
Must consume others for energy
49
Herbivore/Primary consumer
Eats producers
50
Carnivore
Eats other consumers
51
Secondary consumer
Carnivore that eats primary consumers
52
Tertiary consumer
Carnivore that eats secondary consumers
53
Trophic levels
Levels of consumption in a food chain
54
Food chain
Linear sequence of consumption
55
Food web
Complex model of energy/matter flow
56
Scavenger
Eats dead animals
57
Detritivore
Breaks down dead tissues/waste into small particles
58
Decomposer
Fungi/bacteria complete breakdown → recycle elements
59
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Total solar energy captured by producers
60
Net primary productivity (NPP)
GPP - respiration
61
Biomass
Total mass of living matter in an area
62
Standing crop
Biomass present at a specific time
63
Ecological efficiency
Proportion of consumed energy passed to next trophic level
64
Trophic pyramid
Distribution of biomass/energy/numbers across trophic levels
65
Biogeochemical cycle
Movement of matter within/between ecosystems
66
Transpiration
Plants release water into atmosphere
67
Evapotranspiration
Evaporation + transpiration
68
Runoff
Water moving across land into streams/rivers
69
Macronutrient
Six elements organisms need in large amounts: N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
70
Limiting nutrient
Nutrients organisms need, but the demand is more than the supply
71
Nitrogen fixation
N2 gas → NH3, NH4
72
Nitrification
Ammonium → nitrite → nitrate
73
Assimilation
Producers incorporate elements into tissues
74
Mineralization
Decomposers break organic matter → inorganic compounds
75
Ammonification
Organic nitrogen → inorganic ammonium
76
Denitrification
Nitrate → N2O → N2 gas released to atmosphere
77
Leaching
Transport of dissolved molecules in soil via groundwater
78
Algal bloom
Rapid algae growth in water
79
Hypoxic
Low oxygen, due to decomposers using oxygen when algae dies
80
Formula for energy
Energy = Power × Time
81
Formula for power
Power = Energy ÷ Time
82
Photon energy depends on
Its wavelength
83
Long-wavelength photons
Low energy (radio waves)
84
Short-wavelength photons
High energy (X-rays)
85
Example of chemical energy
Gasoline
86
Example of kinetic energy
Sound
87
Higher energy quality: gasoline vs wood
Gasoline (more concentrated, efficient)
88
Pools/stocks
Reservoirs that store matter (air, water, organisms)
89
Flows
Processes that move matter between pools (respiration, photosynthesis)
90
Percolation
Water infiltrating soil to recharge groundwater
91
Main transporter of nutrients
Water
92
Fate of carbon when organisms die
Live biomass → dead biomass → decomposers → CO₂ via respiration
93
Carbon exchange between surface & atmosphere without humans
Steady state
94
Dissolved carbon + calcium ions in ocean
Calcium carbonate → limestone/dolomite rock
95
Fossil fuel formation
Dead biomass buried before decomposing → fossilized over millions of years
96
Photosynthesis equation
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
97
Photosynthesis equation explained
CO₂ = carbon source, H₂O = electron donor, sunlight = energy, C₆H₁₂O₆ = glucose, O₂ = byproduct
98
Respiration equation
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + energy
99
Respiration equation explained
Glucose and oxygen are used to release energy, producing CO₂ and H₂O
100
Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of N₂ → usable nitrogen (ammonia, ammonium, nitrate)
101
Nitrogen fixation organisms
Bacteria (soil, legumes, cyanobacteria)
102
Synthetic nitrogen fixation
Haber–Bosch process → fertilizer
103
Human nitrogen effect
Favors species adapted to high fertility soils (human-induced natural selection)
104
Why phosphorus is limiting
Not soluble in water + no gas phase
105
Source of natural phosphorus
Weathering of rocks
106
Natural sulfur source
Volcanoes release SO₂
107
Human sulfur source
Burning fossil fuels
108
Sulfur environmental effect
Acid rain → damages ecosystems
109
GPP vs NPP vs R analogy
GPP = salary, R = tax, NPP = take-home pay
110
Why GPP is hard to measure
Plants photosynthesize & respire simultaneously
111
Solution to measuring GPP
Use light–dark bottle experiment: GPP = NPP (light O₂ change) + R (dark O₂ change)
112
Energy calculation example
If a device uses 100 W for 10 hours, Energy = 100 × 10 = 1000 Wh = 3.6 MJ
113
Power calculation example
If 7200 J of energy is used in 60 s, Power = 7200 ÷ 60 = 120 W
114
Productivity calculation
If GPP = 100 kJ and R = 60 kJ, NPP = 40 kJ
115
Respiration calculation
If GPP = 200 kJ and NPP = 80 kJ, R = 120 kJ
116
GPP from NPP and R
If NPP = 50 kJ and R = 70 kJ, GPP = 120 kJ
117
Trophic efficiency calculation
If primary producers = 10,000 J and herbivores = 1,000 J, efficiency = (1000 ÷ 10000) × 100 = 10%
118
Energy pyramid math
If tertiary consumers receive 100 J, secondary consumers must have had ~1000 J (10% rule)
119
Conversion kcal to joules
1 kcal = 4184 J
120
Conversion joules to kcal
4184 J = 1 kcal
121
Percent efficiency formula
% efficiency = (energy output ÷ energy input) × 100
122
1 calorie (cal) to joules
1 cal = 4.184 J
123
1 Calorie (Cal) / kilocalorie to joules
1 Cal = 1 kcal = 1,000 cal = 4,184 J = 4.184 kJ
124
1 kcal to MJ
1 kcal = 0.004184 MJ
125
1 BTU to joules
1 BTU ≈ 1,055 J (≈ 1.055 kJ)
126
1 BTU to calories
1 BTU ≈ 252 cal
127
1 watt (W)
1 W = 1 J/s
128
1 kilowatt-hour (kWh) to joules
1 kWh = 3.6 × 10^6 J = 3.6 MJ
129
1 kWh to kcal
1 kWh ≈ 860 kcal
130
Joule scale hierarchy
1,000 J = 1 kJ; 1,000 kJ = 1 MJ; 1,000 MJ = 1 GJ
131
Formula for energy
Energy = Power × Time
132
Formula for power
Power = Energy ÷ Time
133
Photon energy depends on
Its wavelength
134
Long-wavelength photons
Low energy (radio waves)
135
Short-wavelength photons
High energy (X-rays)
136
Example of chemical energy
Gasoline
137
Example of kinetic energy
Sound
138
Higher energy quality: gasoline vs wood
Gasoline (more concentrated, efficient)
139
Pools/stocks
Reservoirs that store matter (air, water, organisms)
140
Flows
Processes that move matter between pools (respiration, photosynthesis)
141
Percolation
Water infiltrating soil to recharge groundwater
142
Main transporter of nutrients
Water
143
Fate of carbon when organisms die
Live biomass → dead biomass → decomposers → CO₂ via respiration
144
Carbon exchange between surface & atmosphere without humans
Steady state
145
Dissolved carbon + calcium ions in ocean
Calcium carbonate → limestone/dolomite rock
146
Fossil fuel formation
Dead biomass buried before decomposing → fossilized over millions of years
147
Photosynthesis equation
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
148
Photosynthesis equation explained
CO₂ = carbon source, H₂O = electron donor, sunlight = energy, C₆H₁₂O₆ = glucose, O₂ = byproduct
149
Respiration equation
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + energy
150
Respiration equation explained
Glucose and oxygen are used to release energy, producing CO₂ and H₂O
151
Nitrogen fixation
Conversion of N₂ → usable nitrogen (ammonia, ammonium, nitrate)
152
Nitrogen fixation organisms
Bacteria (soil, legumes, cyanobacteria)
153
Synthetic nitrogen fixation
Haber–Bosch process → fertilizer
154
Human nitrogen effect
Favors species adapted to high fertility soils (human-induced natural selection)
155
Why phosphorus is limiting
Not soluble in water + no gas phase
156
Source of natural phosphorus
Weathering of rocks
157
Natural sulfur source
Volcanoes release SO₂
158
Human sulfur source
Burning fossil fuels
159
Sulfur environmental effect
Acid rain → damages ecosystems
160
GPP vs NPP vs R analogy
GPP = salary, R = tax, NPP = take-home pay
161
Why GPP is hard to measure
Plants photosynthesize & respire simultaneously
162
Solution to measuring GPP
Use light–dark bottle experiment: GPP = NPP (light O₂ change) + R (dark O₂ change)
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