Z A & P Fall 2025 > Chapter 2 Guyton > Flashcards

Chapter 2 Guyton Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two major parts of a typical cell?

A

Nucleus and cytoplasm

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2
Q

What is protoplasm?

A

The different substances that make up the cell

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3
Q

What percentage of most cells is comprised of water?

A

70% to 85%

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4
Q

Name three important ions found in the cell.

A
  • Potassium
  • Magnesium
  • Phosphate
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5
Q

What is the primary function of proteins in cells?

A

They act as enzymes and perform various cellular functions

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6
Q

How are structural proteins characterized?

A

Structural proteins are characterized by their role in maintaining the shape, strength, and integrity of cells, tissues, and organs. Rather than acting as enzymes or signaling molecules, structural proteins provide support and scaffolding in biological systems

They are present in the form of long filaments and polymers

Examples: collagen, keratin

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7
Q

What do functional proteins primarily do?

A

Catalyze specific intracellular chemical reactions

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8
Q

What are the main types of lipids found in cells?

A
  • Phospholipids
  • Cholesterol
  • Triglycerides
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9
Q

What role do carbohydrates play in cell nutrition?

A

They have structural functions and are involved in energy supply

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10
Q

What is glycogen?

A

An insoluble polymer of glucose stored in cells for energy

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11
Q

What is the function of mitochondria?

A

They are critical for energy release from nutrients

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12
Q

What is the cell membrane also known as?

A

Plasma membrane

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13
Q

What is the approximate composition of the cell membrane?

A
  • 55% proteins
  • 25% phospholipids
  • 13% cholesterol
  • 4% other lipids
  • 3% carbohydrates
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14
Q

Fill in the blank: The basic structure of the cell membrane is a _______.

A

lipid bilayer

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15
Q

What type of substances can easily penetrate the cell membrane?

A

Fat-soluble substances

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16
Q

What are integral proteins?

A

Proteins that protrude all the way through the membrane

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17
Q

What is the role of peripheral proteins?

A

They function as enzymes or controllers of transport

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18
Q

What is the glycocalyx?

A

A loose carbohydrate coat on the outer surface of the cell

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19
Q

Name one function of the glycocalyx.

A
  • Provides negative surface charge
  • Attaches cells to one another
  • Acts as receptors for hormones
  • Involves in immune reactions
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20
Q

What is cytosol?

A

The jelly-like fluid portion of the cytoplasm

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21
Q

What are the five important organelles found in the cytoplasm?

A
  • Endoplasmic reticulum
  • Golgi apparatus
  • Mitochondria
  • Lysosomes
  • Peroxisomes
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22
Q

What is the primary function of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Processes and transports molecules made by the cell

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23
Q

What distinguishes rough endoplasmic reticulum?

A

It has ribosomes attached to its outer surfaces

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24
Q

What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

A

Synthesis of lipid substances

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25
What is the function of ribosomes in the cell?
They function to synthesize new protein molecules in the cell.
26
What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum also known as?
Agranular endoplasmic reticulum.
27
What are the main functions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
* Synthesis of lipid substances such as phoshopholipids, cholesterol, triglycerides * Promotion of other cellular processes by intrareticular enzymes.
28
Describe the structure of the Golgi apparatus.
Composed of four or more stacked layers of thin, flat, enclosed vesicles.
29
How does the Golgi apparatus relate to the endoplasmic reticulum?
Small transport vesicles pinch off from the endoplasmic reticulum and fuse with the Golgi apparatus. ER- synthesizes proteins , transports to Golgi apparatus (the post office) to get ready for shipping to body
30
What types of components are processed in the Golgi apparatus?
* Lysosomes * Secretory vesicles * Other cytoplasmic components.
31
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
To provide an intracellular digestive system.
32
What types of materials can lysosomes digest?
* Damaged cellular structures * Food particles ingested by the cell * Unwanted matter like bacteria.
33
What is the diameter range of lysosomes?
250 to 750 nanometers.
34
What are hydrolytic enzymes?
Enzymes capable of splitting organic compounds into smaller parts by hydrolysis. Examples: amylase- break down carbs into simple sugars, lipase- breaks down fat into fatty acids and glycerol , protease- breaks down protein into simple amino acids
35
What distinguishes peroxisomes from lysosomes?
Peroxisomes contain oxidases and are believed to form by self-replication.
36
What is a major function of peroxisomes?
To catabolize long-chain fatty acids -oxidation
37
What do secretory vesicles store?
Special chemical substances formed by the endoplasmic reticulum–Golgi apparatus system. Secretory vesicles are like cellular delivery packages that store important substances ready to be shipped outside the cell or to specific targets within the cell. Examples: Exocrine cells (e.g., pancreas) secreting digestive enzymes • Endocrine cells secreting hormones into blood • Neurons releasing neurotransmitters at synapses • Immune cells releasing antibodies or signaling molecules
38
What is the role of mitochondria in the cell?
They are the powerhouses of the cell, extracting energy from nutrients.
39
What are the two membranes of the mitochondrion called?
* Outer membrane * Inner membrane.
40
What is the function of cristae in mitochondria?
To provide a large surface area for chemical reactions.
41
What does ATP stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate.
42
How do mitochondria replicate?
By self-replication.
43
What is the cell cytoskeleton composed of?
Fibrillar proteins organized into filaments or tubules.
44
What is the function of microtubules in the cell?
To act as a cytoskeleton, providing rigid structures and directing organelle movement.
45
What is the control center of the cell?
The nucleus.
46
What is the nuclear membrane also known as?
The nuclear envelope.
47
What structures are found in the nucleus that are crucial for ribosome formation?
Nucleoli.
48
What is the primary function of the nucleolus?
To synthesize RNA and proteins for ribosome formation.
49
Fill in the blank: The smallest known virus has a diameter about ______ times smaller than a nucleated cell.
1000
50
True or False: The functions of a cell are simpler than those of a virus.
False
51
What are the basic nucleic acids found in both viruses and mammalian cells?
* DNA * RNA.
52
What is the function of protein enzymes in the early stages of life?
Capable of catalyzing chemical reactions, determining the organism’s activities
53
What distinguishes a nucleated cell from lower forms of life?
The presence of a nucleus, which serves as a control center for cellular activities and reproduction
54
What process allows a cell to obtain nutrients from surrounding fluids?
Endocytosis
55
What are the principal forms of endocytosis?
* Pinocytosis * Phagocytosis
56
What does pinocytosis involve?
The ingestion of minute particles that form vesicles of extracellular fluid
57
What is the average diameter of pinocytotic vesicles?
100 to 200 nanometers
58
What enhances the rate of pinocytotic vesicle formation?
Attachment of large macromolecules to the cell membrane
59
What are coated pits?
Small pits on the outer surface of the cell membrane where specialized protein receptors are concentrated
60
What is required for the energy-dependent process of pinocytosis?
ATP and calcium ions in the extracellular fluid
61
What is phagocytosis?
The ingestion of large particles by certain cells, such as macrophages and white blood cells
62
What initiates phagocytosis?
Binding of a particle to receptors on the surface of the phagocyte
63
What is opsonization?
The process where antibodies attach to bacteria, aiding in their recognition by phagocytes
64
What occurs immediately after a phagocytic vesicle forms inside a cell?
One or more lysosomes attach to the vesicle and empty their acid hydrolases inside
65
What are residual bodies?
Indigestible substances left after digestion inside a cell
66
What process occurs when damaged cells release hydrolases?
Autolysis
67
What are the bactericidal agents contained in lysosomes?
* Lysozyme * Lysoferrin * Acid at a pH of about 5.0
68
What is autophagy?
A housekeeping process where obsolete organelles and large protein aggregates are degraded and recycled
69
What are autophagosomes?
Double-membrane structures that transfer worn-out cell organelles to lysosomes
70
What is the primary function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
Protein factory + processing & packaging center
71
What does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum primarily synthesize?
Lipids, especially phospholipids and cholesterol
72
What are the detoxification processes provided by the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
* Coagulation * Oxidation * Hydrolysis * Conjugation with glycuronic acid
73
What role does the Golgi apparatus play in relation to the endoplasmic reticulum?
Processes substances formed in the endoplasmic reticulum
74
What carbohydrates can the Golgi apparatus synthesize?
Large saccharide polymers like hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate
75
What is the function of hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulfate?
* Components of proteoglycans * Fillers in the extracellular matrix * Components of cartilage and bone * Important in cell activities
76
What triggers exocytosis in secretory cells?
Entry of calcium ions into the cell
77
What are secretory vesicles?
Vesicles formed by the Golgi apparatus that contain proteins such as hormones, digestive enzymes, neurotransmitters, antibodies for secretion
78
How quickly can newly formed protein molecules be detected in the granular endoplasmic reticulum after exposure to amino acids?
Within 3 to 5 minutes
79
How long does it take for newly formed proteins to be secreted from the surface of the cell?
Within 1 to 2 hours
80
What are secretory vesicles primarily formed by?
The Golgi apparatus ## Footnote Secretory vesicles contain proteins that are secreted through the surface of the cell membrane.
81
What mechanism do secretory vesicles use to release their contents?
Exocytosis ## Footnote This process is often stimulated by the entry of calcium ions into the cell.
82
What role do intracellular vesicles play in cellular membranes?
They replenish cellular membranes ## Footnote Intracellular vesicles fuse with membranes of structures like mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum.
83
What are the principal substances from which cells extract energy?
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins ## Footnote These substances react chemically with oxygen to release energy.
84
What is the main energy currency of the cell?
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) ## Footnote ATP is formed in the mitochondria and used for various cellular functions.
85
What components make up ATP?
Adenine, ribose, and three phosphate radicals ## Footnote The high-energy bonds between phosphate radicals are crucial for energy release.
86
What happens when ATP releases its energy?
A phosphoric acid radical is split away, forming ADP ## Footnote This energy is used to energize cellular functions.
87
What process converts glucose into pyruvic acid?
Glycolysis ## Footnote It occurs in the cytoplasm and produces a small amount of ATP(2)
88
Where does most ATP formation occur in the cell?
In the mitochondria ## Footnote About 95% of ATP is formed in this organelle.
89
What cycle is involved in the chemical reactions of ATP formation?
Krebs cycle (or citric acid cycle) ## Footnote This cycle extracts energy from acetyl-CoA and produces carbon dioxide and hydrogen atoms.
90
What do hydrogen atoms combine with in the mitochondria to release energy?
Oxygen ## Footnote This reaction is crucial for converting ADP to ATP.
91
What are the three major categories of cellular functions that ATP supports?
* Transport of substances through cell membranes * Synthesis of chemical compounds * Mechanical work ## Footnote ATP is vital for various cellular activities.
92
What is ameboid movement?
A crawling-like movement of an entire cell ## Footnote This movement is seen in white blood cells as they navigate through tissues.
93
What initiates ameboid locomotion?
Chemotaxis ## Footnote This process is triggered by chemical substances in the tissues.
94
What are the two types of cilia?
* Motile cilia * Nonmotile (primary) cilia ## Footnote Motile cilia have whiplike movements important for clearing mucus in respiratory airways.
95
What is the function of motile cilia in the respiratory airways?
To move mucus toward the pharynx ## Footnote This helps in clearing particles trapped in mucus.
96
What is ATP's turnover time in the cell?
A few minutes ## Footnote ATP is continuously spent and reformed in cellular processes.
97
What happens to the carbon dioxide produced in the Krebs cycle?
It diffuses out of the mitochondria and is excreted through the lungs ## Footnote This is part of the cellular respiration process.
98
What drives the contraction of actin filaments during ameboid locomotion?
ATP ## Footnote The energy released from ATP is essential for movement.
99
What type of cells commonly exhibit ameboid locomotion?
White blood cells ## Footnote Other cells, like fibroblasts, can also move in this manner under certain conditions.
100
What is positive chemotaxis?
Movement toward a higher concentration of a chemotactic substance ## Footnote Cells may also exhibit negative chemotaxis by moving away from the source.
101
What is the rate at which the whiplike motion of motile cilia moves mucus toward the pharynx?
About 1 cm/min
102
What role do cilia play in the uterine tubes?
Transport the ovum from the ovary to the uterus
103
How long do motile cilia typically project from the cell surface?
2 to 4 micrometers
104
How many motile cilia can project from a single epithelial cell in respiratory passageways?
Up to 200 cilia
105
What is the structure that supports each cilium?
Basal body of the cilium
106
What is the composition of a cilium's microtubules?
11 microtubules: nine double tubules and two single tubules
107
How does the flagellum of a sperm differ from a motile cilium?
Flagellum is longer and moves in quasisinusoidal waves
108
What type of movement does a motile cilium exhibit?
Whiplike movement
109
How many times per second does a cilium typically stroke?
10 to 20 times per second
110
What is the name of the complex linking the double and single tubules in cilia?
Axoneme
111
What are the two necessary conditions for ciliary beating to continue after removing other structures?
* Availability of ATP * Appropriate ionic conditions (magnesium and calcium)
112
What happens to the double tubules during the forward motion of the cilium?
The double tubules on the front edge slide outward toward the tip
113
What protein is involved in the movement of cilia?
Dynein
114
What is the presumed signal that activates dynein arms in cilia?
An electrochemical signal transmitted along the central tubules
115
What is the function of nonmotile primary cilia?
Serve as cellular sensory 'antennae'
116
What is one physiological role of primary cilia in the kidneys?
Act as a flow sensor
117
What condition is thought to be related to defects in primary cilia signaling in renal tubular epithelial cells?
Polycystic kidney disease
118
Fill in the blank: The cilia of some genetically abnormal cells do not have the two central _______ and fail to beat.
single tubules
Z A & P Fall 2025
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