Exotics 3

Question 1

In terms of wildlife disease management what are the 3 main considerations

Answer 1

1) is management desirable
2) is management feasible
3) what is the goal with management - prevention, control or eradication

Question 2

In terms of is management desirable what are the 4 main reasons that would make it so and how to determine

Answer 2

• Is management desired/needed to protect human (number 1 reason) and/or domestic animal health (number 2 reason)?
• Is management needed to protect a threatened species (number 3 reason)
  ○ If affecting the population that isn’t threatened (number 4 maybe not reason)
  DETERMINE - Perform a cost : benefit analysis
  ○ This may include financial costs (and benefits), but must also consider ecological costs and benefits

Question 3

in terms of is management feasible what are the 3 main questions that needs to be asked

Answer 3

• Can we monitor the disease?
• Who is the target population for management?
  ○ wildlife vs humans vs domestic animals
• Can we monitor the success of management?

Question 4

In terms of outbreak investigation management what are the 3 levels

Answer 4

1) managing the pathogen/toxin
2) managing the animal
3) managing the environment - many stakeholders, harder to do anything about

Question 5

In terms of managing the pathogen/toxin for wildlife outbreak management what are the 3 types of pathogens and possible management

Answer 5

○ Non-infectious -> generally highly political
○ Infectious -> treating a large number of wild animals - DIFFICULT
§ Commercial fox bait laces with praziquantel -> intensive and expensive
Vectors -> infertile male mosquito prevents fertilisation

Question 6

In terms of managing the animal for wildlife outbreak management what are the 2 main ways and examples within

Answer 6

1) Change distribution of animals -> remove from source
§ Disperse animals (including restriction from an area)
§ Restriction of movement -> keep animals within certain national parks
§ Selective culling
§ Reduce population density (mainly killing, repro control) -> NZ trying to cull all possums
□ Works for density dependent diseases (NOT Tasmanian devils
§ Insurance population
□ Treat in wild population and vaccinate
□ NOTHING can do for disease and get healthy animals out -> still have some if the wild ones disappear
® Brings up issue with captive breeding programs
□ Tassie devils
2) Vaccination
§ Aim to achieve -> push reproductive number below 1 -> rabies in switzerland

Question 7

In terms of managing the environment in wildlife outbreak management what is the aim, what does it required and 2 main options

Answer 7

○ Aim: Reduce exposure to pathogen, or increase ability to cope with pathogen
○ Requires thorough understanding of the disease epidemiology, but may result in longer lasting results than first two options.
○ Options include:
§ Abiotic environment: climate, soils, water
§ Biotic environment: vegetation, animals

Question 8

What are the 5 main disease surveillance types for wildlife

Answer 8

1. Mass mortality events
2. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of known diseases (usually via research projects)
3. Single accessions of dead wildlife to pathology labs
   § Australia: co-ordinated zoo-based and uni-based
4. Active surveillance to collect samples from target population
   § E.g. testing frog populations for presence of chytridfungus; avian influenza
   § Requires established protocols
5. Passive surveillance - most common
   § Opportunistic sampling generally from public identifying mortalities and government investigation there

Question 9

What are the 5 main applicable legal Victoria codes for dealing with wildlife in practice

Answer 9

1) wildlife act 1975 - most important
2) Wildlife Shelter and Foster Carer Authorisation Guide 2018 -> wildlife rehabilitation
3) catchment land protection act 1994
4) prevention of cruelty to animals act 1986
5) veterinary practice act 1997

Question 10

For wildlife act 1975 what is the 3 main important statements to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

Answer 10

○ Protected wildlife can only be held by licensed carer, or veterinarian (and their staff) for treatment and rehabilitation
○ A special license is needed to hold wildlife for any other purpose
○ All shelters must keep report, which include species, date of admission, location of rescue, animal injuries, cause of injury and fate of animal

Question 11

Wildlife Shelter and Foster Carer Authorisation Guide 2018 what are the 5 main statements to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

Answer 11

○ Shelters must comply with any direction from authorised office from Department of Environment
○ A vet may ask DELWP for help if concerned about welfare
○ Unusual or threatened wildlife to be reported to DEPI
○ Animals released near point of capture
○ Treatment only if full recovery is likely

Question 12

Catchment land protection and veterainary act what is the main statement that need to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

Answer 12

• Catchment Land Protection Act 1994
  ○ Offense to care for or release animals listed as pest species
  If admitted to vet clinic - MUST BE EUTHANISED
• Veterinary Practice Act 1997
  A vet needs to act in a professional manner

Question 13

Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 what is the 2 main statements that need to uphold when dealing with wildlife in practice

Answer 13

○ Offense to omit or do an act which causes unreasonable pain or suffering or be owner or person in charge of injured animal and unreasonably fail to provide vet treatment -> if guilty of this offence a prison sentence could be attained
○ Vet practitioner may destroy animal likely to cause serious injury or death to other person or animal or if animal will continue to suffer if remain alive

Question 14

List some pets animals in Vic and what needs to be done with them

Answer 14

MUST BE EUTHANISED

• RABBITS
• Red-eared slider turtle
• Cane toad
• Carp
• Red fox
• European hare
• Feral or wild goats
• Feral or wild pig
• Wild or feral dog - if on private property or within 1km radius of the farm
• feral bird species:
• Indian mynahs
• Feral pigeons

Question 15

What do you do if someone brings in an unidentified (possibly feral) cat

Answer 15

• Not declared pest species

- Emergency treatment (euthanise on welfare grounds) -> stabilise/pain-relief and give to the council

Question 16

Brushtail possum if trapped in the house and bring into the vet clinic what do you do

Answer 16

○ Can humanely euthanise the possum -> legal

○ If they have been trapped humanely they can be released within 50 meters of the house after sunset

Question 17

A carer rings you after hours and asks to bring in a koala that has been hit by a car; the animal appears to have moderate to severe injuries, including a fractured leg
Do you have to see the animal?

Answer 17

YES YOU NEED TO SEE IT (if you are on call)
○ Legal requirements:
§ Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1986)
□ Vet; “finder”
§ Special “vet clause” -> HAVE TO HELP and also can euthanise an animal that is endangering human life or other animals

Question 18

A carer rings you after hours and asks to bring in a koala that has been hit by a car; the animal appears to have moderate to severe injuries, including a fractured leg. What information do you need from the carer and where keep it?

Answer 18

History taking
- Where was the animal found?
○ Animal must be released at site of rescue (Code of Practice for the Welfare of Wildlife During Rehabilitation 2001; Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act
® Some exceptions
® If don’t do this less likely to survive
- What happened to the animal, and when? Or when was the animal first noticed?
- How easy was it to capture the animal?
- Contact details of the carer, and the “rescuer”
- Keep good records of admission, treatment and outcome

Question 19

What are the 4 main steps after admission of the animal

Answer 19

1. Prompt triage
2. Consider zoonotic potential
3. If immediate attention is not needed: dark and quiet area, ideally separate from cats/dogs
   - Basics: species, weight, body measurements, age, condition
   - Observe the animal: clues on degree of illness and type of injuries
4. Decide on whether sedation or anaesthesia is needed for:
   - Diagnostics: physical exam, radiography, bloods, faecal floatation (may find faeces in box/cage) etc

Question 20

What 5 main considerations you need to take into account before deciding on your treatment regime and/or whether to treat

Answer 20

1. How serious are the injuries? Is the animal likely to fully recover and be able to be released within a reasonable time frame?
2. Wildlife unable to be fully rehabilitated should not be kept as pets (CoPWelfare of Wildlife During Rehabilitation); some exceptions
3. What are the ecological implications of rehabilitating and releasing the animal -> is it overabundant or threatened species
4. Cost recovery???
5. Should you refer the animal to a specialist wildlife veterinarian?

Question 21

List some conditions that make a full recovery for injuried wildlife doubtful, if unsure or have threatened species what to do

Answer 21

○ Sensory losses: loss of sight, hearing, smell
○ Loss of motility
○ Underlying chronic disease (e.g. chlamydiosis)
○ Loss of a limb or prehensile tail
○ Imprinting on humans or inability to adjust to captivity
○ IF UNSURE -> CALL ZOO VETS
IF Threatened species -> call the government

Question 22

If you decide to treat, how long should you keep the animal in hospital for?

Answer 22

As little time as possible

Question 23

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do.
What do you/your reception staff advise them to do?

Answer 23

1. DO NOT TOUCH -> Zoonotic bat diseases!!
   - Life-threatening viral diseases affecting humans
   ○ Hendra virus (probably no direct transmission)
   - Australian Bat Lyssavirus(ABLV) (direct transmission; fatal) - RABIES
   ○ “Beware” of the yellow bellied sheath-tail bat
   ○ MORE LIKELY TO CARRY IN A SICK BAT
   - Menangle virus (bat to pig; pig to human)
2. CALL A CAREER that is vaccinated against rabies
   - If there is no one available cannot do much for the bat

Question 24

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do. What information do you obtain from the caller and later the carer?

Answer 24

○ History taking
- How long has the animal been observed to be sitting under the tree?
- Have there been any other animals showing similar signs?
- Has anyone already touched the animal?
○ Then need to euthanised and tested for rabies
○ Cannot give human health advice - HIGHLY RECOMMEND THAT NEED TO GO SEE GP
- Carer: How easy was it to catch the animal?

Question 25

A member of the public rings your clinic to tell you they have found a sick-looking flying fox sitting under a tree in their garden, and they want to know what to do. Should you see/examine the flying fox yourself?

Answer 25

○ Only if vaccinated | ○ If scratched need to get post exposure vaccine -> GO SEE DOCTOR

Question 26

One of your large animal clients brings in an orphan joey that she has found in a paddock next to its dead mother. She wants to get some milk replacer for it and asks you to have a quick look at the animal while she’s here. Is it okay for her to raise the orphan kangaroo?

Answer 26

○ According to the Wildlife Regulations 2013, it’s an offence to give an animal to a member of the public who is not a licensed wildlife carer(exception for veterinary surgeons and their staff for the purpose of treatment)

Question 27

In terms of marsupial dosages what animal go by

Answer 27

use cats as a model -> they are generally more sensitive

Question 28

Marsupials shape of their spleen, metabolism and body temp

Answer 28

- Spleen is triangular or triradiate - Marsupial metabolism 30% than non-marsupial, - Mean body temp from 33-36 degrees

Question 29

Marsupials teeth what are the 2 types

Answer 29

1) Wombat teeth are open rooted (rodents) need to grind against each other to get worn down (symmetrical manner) malocclusion is bad ○ Need to be able to survive in the wild without human intervention -> wombats with malocclusion need dental treatment commonly so cannot be released - euthanised 2) Molar progression - eastern grey kangaroo -> 4 sets of molars all up and once they are used up the kangaroos

Question 30

Marsupials GIT what are the 2 main types and species within

Answer 30

○ Foregut fermenters -> macropods -> large sacculated stomach (not 4 chamber stomach) ○ Hindgut fermenters § Wombats -> caecum is vestigial and fermentation occurs in the colon § Others -> large caecum with most extensive being of the koala

Question 31

Marsupials reproductive tract how many structures

Answer 31

○ Two ovaries, two oviducts, two separate uteri and cervices ○ Each uterus opens into a vaginal sac separated from septum into the lateral vagina § Median vagina comes into play during birth (before first birth pretty much non-existent) □ Can remain or re-forms every time gives birth ○ Each vaginal goes into urogenital sinus which also receives the urethra -> cloaca

Question 32

what are some important aspects of housing for bandicoots, wombats, kangaroos and possums

Answer 32

- Bandicoots -> solitary, soft floor to prevent foot problems - Wombats -> dig proof, need a den - Kangaroos -> need to graze, all fence post on the outside (can run along the fence line and can take their shoulders out on the way around) - Possum and glider -> roofed and branches provided

Question 33

What is the goal of physical restraint in wildlife and how long do for

Answer 33

- Use this to achieve chemical restraint | - Highly stressful so want to do for as short of a time as possible

Question 34

Physical restrain how to achieve on a macropod

Answer 34

- Adult NEVER MANUALLY RESTAINED - Grasped at the base of the tail then lift off the ground - Place into hessian bags or pillow case and then anaesthesia via infection or extracting head from sack and mask induction

Question 35

Physical restrain how to achieve on a possums what is important to avoid

Answer 35

- Scratch and deliver painful baits - Generally people trap the possums -> sit in the back of the trap and need to get into hessian bag/pillow case/towel ○ Do this but backing spitting noises at the possum with bag at the end, if doesn't move may need to inject and anaesthetise in the trap - A towel should be thrown over them then grasp firmly behind the head (FIRM, MORE LIKELY TO GET BITTEN THEN STRANGLE) and then hold base of tail -> stretch out of possum ○ Place mask or inject for induction

Question 36

Physical restrain how to achieve on a koalas and wombats what is important to avoid

Answer 36

KOALAS - Extremely sharp claws and teeth but quite fragile ribs - Restrain by holding both upper arms, AVOID TEETH - Transport sack is ideal WOMBATS - Extremely strong and sharp teeth If quiet enough can be picked up under forearms in bear hug

Question 37

Physical restrain how to achieve on a echidna what is important to avoid

Answer 37

- Difficult to retrain once in a ball - Try to get onto solid surface (concrete), shovel underneath and reach under and try to grab the back leg, lift up (point cloaca away from yourself as will spray) - May need to inject (difficult to get into face mask as dip snot within)

Question 38

What are the 4 main chemical restrain options and the main general way that is ideal

Answer 38

- Preferred way is to place face mask and induct via isoflurane -> induction and recovery is fast 1) Zoleti 2) xylazine/ketamine 3) medetomidine/ketamine - more relaxed but more expensive and need larger volumes 4) alfaxalone - IV generally - works well in reptiles

Question 39

Zoletil what is it good for with wildlife

Answer 39

- Zoletil -> good for wildlife and good for tranquilizer gun ○ Go down quickly, relaxation not the best (jaw clamping and leg movement) ○ Can take several hours to wake up from

Question 40

What are the 6 main injection sites for marsupials and which marsupials use with each

Answer 40

1. Lateral coccygeal vein in macropods (along either side of the tail). 2. Ventral coccygeal vein (as for rodents) is useful for smaller marsupials e.g. possums, gliders, small carnivorous marsupials. 3. Femoral vein/artery. (Direct needle at pulse felt in inguinal region.) Arterial blood is often obtained and digital pressure is required to prevent haematoma formation. ○ This vessel is good in koalas and bandicoots, but general anaesthesia is required to access it. 4. Medial metatarsal vein (small vein along medial aspect of hindleg). Good for wombats. 5. Cephalic vein can be used in macropods, koalas, wombats (with some difficulty). 6. Jugular vein -> for those with necks (kangaroos), NOT WOMBATS

Question 41

Euthanasia in wildlife and what are some common anaglesics

Answer 41

euthanasia - Intracardiac as already anesthetised Analgesics - butorphanol, buprenorphine, flunixin, carprofen,meloxicam

Question 42

Toxoplasmosis hosts, clinical signs, diagnosis and pathology

Answer 42

Toxoplasma gondii ○ Cats are definitive host, marsupials are SUSCEPTIBLE (kangaroo, wombat and bandicoots) ○ Clinical signs: sudden death, blindness, neurological symptoms, depression, anorexia, ataxia, staggering ○ Diagnosis: Direct agglutination test -> once test results back animal probably dead ○ Pathology: cysts in the brain and lungs, non-supportive encephalitis

Question 43

Toxoplasmosis treatment, control and zoonosis?

Answer 43

○ Treatment: Clindamycin 11 mg/kg IM BID for 30 days, trimethoprim-sulphonamide 15 mg/kg IM SID, or atovaquone 100 mg/kg PO SID for 30 days - PROBABLY STILL DIE, HAVEN'T BEEN PROVEN TO HELP ○ Control: prevent marsupia access to cat faeces, sterilise equipment by autoclaving for 70 degrees at least 10mins ○ ZOONOSIS -> potential with immunocompromised people, foetal abnormalities if pregnant women infected - CAN BE TESTED

Question 44

Coccidiosis what marsupials is it mainly within, why occur, clinical signs and diagnosis

Answer 44

Hand-raised eastern grey kangaroo and common wombats ○ Thought because no maternal antibodies/immunity passed to young from mum so when placed in environment with oocysts pick them up then die ○ Clinical signs: sudden death with or without coccidial oocysts, haemorrhagic diarrhoea ○ Diagnosis: faecal float but may not find oocysts

Question 45

Coccidiosis within wildlife pathology, treatment and control

Answer 45

○ Pathology: Haemorrhagic enteritis with numerous pale foci in the small intestine. Schizonts and gamonts are visible in the lamina propria ○ Treatment: Toltrazuril 25 mg/kg PO SID, ponazuril 50 mg/kg PO SID. IV fluids -> GENERALLY CANNOT TREAT ○ Control: prophylactically give plasma transfusion (anecdotally) just before start grazing

Question 46

Sarcoptic mange what marspuials within, clinical signs and significance

Answer 46

Sarcoptes scabiei -> Wombats and koalas. ○ Clinical Signs: Affected wombats are often seen during the day, emaciated, blind, intensely pruritic and develop hair loss with a thick, dry, keratinous crust, which fissures with movement leading to secondary pyoderma and myiasis. ○ ZOONOSIS

Question 47

Sarcoptic mange in marsupials diagnosis, treatment and control

Answer 47

○ Diagnosis: Skin scraping ○ Treatment: Euthanasia. Ivermectin or moxidectin 0.3 mg/kg SC weekly. Selamectin 6 mg/kg topically (revolution - once a week for 4 treatments) ○ Control: Eradication from a population is not possible. Mites survive up to three weeks in burrows.

Question 48

Chlamydiosis what are the 2 species, zoonosis? and clinical signs

Answer 48

Koalas. Chlamydia pneumoniae and Chlamydia pecorum. ○ There are no recorded cases of koala chlamydia infecting humans. ○ Clinical Signs: i. Mucopurulent conjunctivitis and keratitis leading to blindness. ii. Soiling and staining of the fur around the rump, dysuria and haematuria as a result of cystitis. iii. Pyelonephritis, hydronephrosis and renal fibrosis. Cystic enlargement of the ovarian bursae, salpingitis, hyrdosalpinx, metritis, pyometra, and vaginitis. iv. Affected females usually become infertile but may not show external signs of disease.

Question 49

Chlamydiosis diagnosis, treatment and control

Answer 49

○ Diagnosis: PCR on swab of conjunctiva, urogenital sinus or penile urethra. ○ Treatment: Enrofloxacin 10 mg/kg IM SID for up to 12 weeks. Oxytetracycline or chloramphenicol eye ointment § Supplementary feeding with a soya based formula or a low lactose milk powder such as Di-Vetalact or Portagen. § Mix the powder with water to form a semi-liquid paste. Administer 60 ml of paste orally by syringe daily, divided into two or three doses. § Chronically affected emaciated koalas have a poor prognosis - euthanise ○ Control: Glutaraldehyde applied for one to ten minutes is the disinfectant of choice for chlamydia. Chloramine is also effective.

Question 50

Cryptococcosis what marsupial found in, how common, the different species and what associated with and transmission

Answer 50

Koalas - not common ○ Cryptococcus neoformans is usually associated with bird, particularly pigeon, faeces. ○ Cryptococcus gattii is associated with river red gums. § Thought to be immunocompromised animals as present in environment commonly ○ Spread is via aerosol and inhalation of desiccated discharges. § Animal to animal or animal to human transmission has not been reported.

Question 51

Cryptococcosis clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 51

○ Clinical Signs: Depression, coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, dyspnoea, anorexia, maxillary swelling, neurological signs, subcutaneous cervical abscessation and death. In parenchymal organs gross lesions appear as white gelatinous foci. Skin lesions are firm nodules that tend to ulcerate. ○ Diagnosis: Diff Quik, Gram or India ink stain of smears of discharges, or biopsies of affected areas, which display yeast-like organisms surrounded by a clear mucopolysaccharide capsule. § Organisms average 4-10 μm in diameter. The capsule increases the diameter to 30 μm. Culture or a latex cryptococcal antigen agglutination test on serum or CSF can also be used. ○ Treatment: Itraconazole 20 to 40 mg/kg SID, ketoconazole 10 mg/kg SID, or fluconazole 3 mg/kg SID for as long as 90 days.

Question 52

Pneumonia in marsupials what are the main bacterial causes, clinical signs, pathology and treatment

Answer 52

Fusobacterium necrophorum, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella in macropods. Bordetella bronchiseptica in koalas. ○ Clinical Signs: Sudden death, dyspnoea, exercise intolerance, sneezing, coughing, or a mucopurulent nasal discharge. ○ Pathology: Necrotizing and fibrinous, lung tissue appears green and cavitated. ○ Treatment: Broad spectrum antibiotics - at cat dosage rates

Question 53

Cat Bites what marsupial does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

Answer 53

Ring-tailed possums. ○ Clinical Signs: Leucopaenia, septicaemia (Pasteurella) and death. -> cats have nasty mouths § Punctures may be difficult to find but often occur over the shoulders or neck. ○ Treatment: Clavulox 12.5 mg/kg IM BID -> need to get onto early and be aggressive -> generally still die

Question 54

Caecal stasis what marsupials does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

Answer 54

Ring-tailed possums treated with antibiotics or that have been maintained on an inappropriate diet high in sugar, such as fruit. ○ Clinical Signs: Weakness and bloating with decreased faecal output. ○ Treatment: Increase the fibre content of the diet by providing more browse combined with metoclopramide 1 mg/kg IM BID for seven days § Faecal transplants -> mix faeces with milk formula -> in koalas most bacteria needed is in caecum so need to get caecal contents as well

Question 55

Pouch infections what marsupials does it mainly affect, clinical signs and treatment

Answer 55

Brush-tailed possums, macropods and koalas. Pseudomonas has been isolated from some of these. ○ Clinical Signs: Hairs around the infected pouch are moist. The pouch itself contains a greasy foul smelling liquid. ○ Treatment: Twice daily cleaning of the pouch with an antiseptic such as chlorhexidine followed by drying with cotton swabs. Ceftazidime 15 mg/kg IM BID has successfully treated koala pouch infections.

Question 56

Lumpy jaw what marsupials does it affect and clinical signs

Answer 56

Primarily a disease of captive macropods. ○ Clinical Signs: Gingivitis progressing to cellulitis with abscessation of the muscles over the mandibles and maxilla, followed by osteomyelitis with tooth loss, bone resorption and fractures. Purulent nasal discharge, facial swelling, increased salivation, halitosis, difficulty prehending food and weight loss. § Visceral abscesses in the liver, lungs, spleen and stomach. Bone and soft tissues of the tail tip and hind toes may also become involved.

Question 57

Lumpy jaw treatment and control

Answer 57

○ Treatment: Flush abscessed material, curette affected bone, remove teeth and long term systemic antibiotics: clindamycin 11 mg/kg PO BID, long acting penicillin 1 ml/10 kg IM EOD, or ceftiofur 2 mg/kg IM SID. § Difficult to get rid of entirely Control: Occurs most commonly on over stocked paddocks with a high faecal load. Daily raking and faecal removal will decrease the bacterial load in the paddock. Place feed in trays or hay racks. Do not feed bread as it forms a starchy paste on the teeth and gums promoting bacterial colonisation and infection

Question 58

Capture myopathy what is the main marsupial it affects, results from and clinical signs

Answer 58

Macropods. ○ The result of prolonged sustained stress and exertion, which causes heat and lactic acid build up. Heat stressed animals will lick their forelegs. ○ Clinical Signs: § Peracute death may occur within hours of capture due to rhabdomyolysis increasing serum potassium and acidosis leading to ventricular fibrillation. § Acute capture myopathy leads to death in three to four hours due to hyperthermia and shock. □ Individuals show tachycardia, increased respiratory rate, reluctance to move, and muscle rigidity. § Subacute capture myopathy occurs several hours to days post capture. □ Affected animals have ataxia, torticollis and myoglobinuria due to extensive muscle and kidney necrosis. Body temperature is usually normal. Muscles can rupture up to four weeks post capture.

Question 59

Capture myopathy what pathological finding would you see generally, after 10hrs, 3-4 days, 1 or more weeks

Answer 59

○ Pathology: Skeletal muscle necrosis is seen, most commonly in the hindlimb adductors and psoas muscle, but also in the neck, back and diaphragm. § After 10 hrs affected muscles are dark red, dry and well circumscribed. § At 3-4 days muscles are paler and softer than normal. § After 1 or more weeks muscles are white and hard due to fibrosis. Similar lesions may occur in the myocardium. Kidneys are often swollen and discoloured and the bladder may contain coffee coloured urine. Histologically renal tubules may be plugged with myoglobin and muscle fibres are necrotic. In chronic cases fibrosis and mineralisation occur. CPK peaks 6-12 hours post injury and declines rapidly in the absence of further injury. AST peaks 24-36 post injury and declines over several days.

Question 60

Capture myopathy treatment and control

Answer 60

○ Treatment: IV Fluids 90 ml/kg/hr IV (flush myoglobin through kidney and analgesics). Bicarbonate, (for acidosis treatment) Dexamethasone Dantrolene IV or methocarbamol IV (muscle relaxation). Flunixin IV, ketoprofen IM or butorphanol IV. Acepromazine IV (sedatives) ○ Control: Rapid capture, acclimate animals to handling and confinement, not capturing on hot days, ensure adequate ventilation, abandon capture if the animal becomes unduly excited or stressed, use of long acting tranquilisers and sedatives such as diazepam, and ensure animals are on a good plane of nutrition particularly with respect to Vitamin E and selenium as low levels of these nutrients have been shown to predispose to capture myopathy.

Question 61

Ringworm what are the 2 main species in marsupials, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and significance

Answer 61

Trichophyton spp. or Microsporum spp. ○ Clinical Signs: Alopecia, erythema and hyperkeratotic scales that lift off with the hair- generally on the limbs § Trichophyton infections are non-pruritic, Microsporum infections are pruritic. ○ Diagnosis: Scrape affected areas, stain with 40% potassium hydroxide or India ink and check for fungus. Culture. ○ Treatment: Topical antifungal agents. Many clear up without treatment ○ ZOONOSIS

Question 62

What are normal endoparasites found with marsupials

Answer 62

strongyle are normal

Question 63

List 6 endoparasites within marsupials and what do they lead to

Answer 63

1. Strongyloides cause a haemorrhagic gastritis with ulceration. 2. Globocephaloides is a hookworm found in the duodenum that can cause anaemia, hypoproteinaemia and death. 3. Progamotaenia is a cestode commonly found in the bile ducts - generally not pathogenic 4. Bertiella obesa is the small intestinal tapeworm of koalas. It can cause debilitation in large numbers and uses an arthropod intermediate host. 5. Fasciola hepatica - liver fluke out of bile duct 6. Hydatid cysts as well -> lungs and liver

Question 64

What are some common endoparasites drugs for marsupials and which shouldn't you use and why

Answer 64

Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg S/C, moxidectin 0.2 mg/kg S/C, fenbendazole (most common) 7.5 mg/kg PO or oxfendazole 5 mg/kg PO (generally work better than ML), Praziquantel 5 mg/kg. § Mebendazole causes bone marrow suppression and death

Question 65

Antechinus mortality what is it and what results, anatomical structures of these animals

Answer 65

NORMAL ○ Occurs each year in male antechinus immediately following the breeding season. § This is the result of elevated corticosteroid levels leading to a range of syndromes including anaemia, reduced splenic follicle size § heavy Babesia parasitaemias, Listeria monocytogenes induced hepatic necrosis and gastrointestinal haemorrhage due to gastric and duodenal ulcers. § Large testicles (different from mice), large carnivore teeth (carnivores)

Question 66

Nephrosis what marsupials most common in, cause, clinical signs, pathology, treatment and control

Answer 66

Koalas: ○ Often secondary to a period of dehydration leading to decreased renal blood flow, ischaemic tubular necrosis and renal failure. § Thought to be because of climate change (increase temp, decrease water in diet), chlamydia infection, ○ Clinical Signs: Depression, anorexia, polydipsia and elevated blood urea. ○ Pathology: Tubular necrosis and fibrosis often associated with the presence of oxalate crystals. Pyelonephritis. ○ Treatment: IV fluids. ○ Control: Provide access to water and fresh eucalyptus leaves. Periods of dehydration should be treated aggressively with intravenous fluids.

Question 67

emaciated koala what is the common cause and what need to check

Answer 67

if don't have teeth left then no point persisting as will just die of starvation - IF HAVE TEETH - Blood and run urea -> testing for nephrosis, also history with head in water bowl suggesting kidney disease

Question 68

Echidna what are 2 common diseases/traumas

Answer 68

1) Very sensitive and long unprotected beaks -> if smashed beck then not much you can do 2) Sparganosis -> Spirometra parasite worm that goes through dogs, echidna act as intermediate host, subcutaneous swelling ○ Treatable just need surgery

Question 69

rabbits do they vomit and common GIT diseases

Answer 69

no vomiting - Gut stasis (gastric, caecal, atony): stress, pain, diet - Liver lob torsion (1.5 years - 6 years old) - Coccidia (Emeria perforans, magna, media, perforans, intestinalis) ○ Most common clinical cases <6months old ○ Most common if trying to treat for other things - Antibiotic induced - GI obstruction: Trichobezoars (large amount of fur within stomach), tumours (lymphoma) - Dehydration - Tapeworm - Adhesions - Astovirus

Question 70

Guinea pigs do they vomit and common GIT diseases

Answer 70

no vomiting - GDV - not very common - Antibiotic induced enteritis - hind-gut fermenters - Gut stasis: dental disease, stress, pain - Parasitic: coccidia - Faecal impaction/obstructive disease

Question 71

What are some common ferret GIT diseases

Answer 71

- Inflammatory bowl disease (IBD) - Lymphoma - Eosinophilic infiltrate - Viral ○ Distemper, ferret enteric coronavirus (FRECV: epizootic catatthal enteritis), ferret systemic coronavirus (FRSCV), rota virus - Parasites: coccidia (Eimeria, furonis), Giardia duodenalis - Bacterial: salmonella, campylobacter, helicobacter mustelae ○ Generally due to people giving them live pray - FB - Extrahepatic obstructions, cholestasis - Gastric ulcer - Rare: pancreatitis, GDV

Question 72

What are the 3 important things in working up GIT cases for exotics

Answer 72

1) history 2) physical examination 3) diagnostics

Question 73

What is important about history in working up exotic GIT cases

Answer 73

History -> what have the owners done, what has the animal done, ○ Husbandry and what is happening § Diet, other pets, housing, vaccinations, overcrowding/new additions, fever, weight loss/gain, vomiting, energy levels § Faecal changes: diarrhoea, constipation, faecal pellet/amount □ Rabbit - commonly present with 'diarrhoea', but maybe rabbit just not eating cecotropes (more sticky poo that normally eat) § Medications: Antiparasitics, antibiotics, steroids

Question 74

What is important about the physical exam for GIT in exotics especially rabbits, guinea pigs and ferrets

Answer 74

○ Usually full physical examination ○ Attention: abdominal pain, distention or mass, gut sounds ○ Rabbits: dental health, hocks, abdominal auscultation, tympany ○ Guinea pigs: tympany, abdominal auscultation ○ Ferrets: adenomegaly

Question 75

What is important with diagnostics for GIT diseases in exotics

Answer 75

○ Blood work: WBCC (is it anaemic), glucose (high glucose worse prognostic), lactate (not as good), liver enzymes, electrolytes, protein ○ Faecal: float (rule out coccidia), direct smear, centrifuge, gram stain, culture ○ Imaging: ultrasound, radiographs (gut stasis not good), CT, MRI, fluoroscopy ○ Endoscopy/exploratory laparotomy: cytology, histopathology

Question 76

What is gut stasis, differential and clinical signs

Answer 76

symptom not a disease - BUT CAN BE FATAL -> should talk to owner when first come in with rabbit Differential - GI obstruction, coccidia, atony, adhesions, uterine adenocarcinoma Clinical signs - Faecal production: decreased frequency/decreased size/ absent - Eating caecatrops - Appetite: decreased/absent/altered - Recent stressful event - +/- decreased energy - Sudden death

Question 77

Gut stasis physical exam results and diagnosis

Answer 77

Physical examination results - Gut sounds: decreased/absent - Altered abdominal palpation: empty, doughy (normally doughy but can get bad), fluidy, gas - Painful abdomen - Concurrent disease (oral MaxFax, Pododermatitis, Parasites, Arthritis, obesity) Diagnostics - Variables: severity/identifiable concurrent disease/owners finances - Options: ○ Oral examination: MUST ○ TPR: (HR <180bpm bradycardia, T <35.1 hypothermia, RR tachypnoea) ○ Blood work: § Glucose, PCV/TP/electroytes, renal enzymes, lactate (limited correlation) ○ Blood pressure (<90mmHg hypotension) ○ X-rays: FB, gas pattern (gastric, small intestines, caecum), fluid pattern, mass, arthritis ○ Faecal: coccidia ○ Ultrasound: no use usually: gas obstruction Fluoroscopy

Question 78

Gut stasis what are the 6 main treatments and what is the most important

Answer 78

1. Rehydration - IV if possible, 2-3XM) - use ear vein -> INITIAL ○ Can also use subcutaneous fluids 2. Analgesia - opioids (GIT issues so only initially) vs NSAIDS (do well) - INITIAL ○ Buprenorphine, meloxicam 3. Prokinetic - varies on area of GI tract ○ Metaclopramide (proximal GI) vs Cisapride (whole GI) ○ Ranitidine (whole GI and inhibits acid secretion) 4. Food - syringe feed critical care - 3-4 big meals per day ○ 10-15 mins/kg QID-BID 5. Treatment -> for other concurrent disease - IMPORTANT 6. Decompress stomach if severe tympany Will not get better without treatment but shouldn't treat quickly

Question 79

What are 7 other GIT problems

Answer 79

1. Trichobezoar -> surgery vs medical management 2. Foreign body -> surgery vs medical management - CARE - gastric and intestinal wall very thin ○ Adhesions form easily 3. Caecal impaction -> surgery vs medical management 4. Coccidia -> most small mammals, usually asymptomatic - Diagnosis -> histopathology/faecal float - Treatment -> toltrazuril , sulfamethazine, hygiene 5. other parasites -> gross finding, faecal and treat base on parasite - Taenia in rats can cause severe disease - if not getting better look for this 6. liver lobe torsion -> diagnosis via ultrasound, treatment with hepatectomy 7. biliary cystadenoma -> diagnosis via ultrasound, treatment with partial hepatectomy

Question 80

What are the 3 main GIT problems that can have medical management and what are the options

Answer 80

1) trichobezoar 2) foreign body 3) caecal impaciton Medical generally first options for above - Fluids: 2-3X M - Prostaglandin F2 alpha (0.2mg/kg) - Pineapple juice for trichobezoars - Mineral oil

Question 81

IBD, eosinophilic gastroenteritis what exotic animal found within, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 81

ferrets - All can present with any of the clinical signs -> vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia, dysorexia - Generally <5 years old - Diagnosis - ultrasound (best modality for ferrets, if not this than viral), full thickness biopsy, lymph node - Treatment - support, diet (highly digestible protein), immunosuppression (prednisolone 2mg/kg SID, cyclosporine 4mg/kg BID)

Question 82

Lymphoma in ferrets what yeas common in, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis

Answer 82

- Usually 1-2 years visceral, 2-7 years lymph nodes - Clinical signs - weight loss, vomiting, diarrhoea, anorexia - Diagnosis - blood work (+/- leucocytosis), abdominal ultrasound, exploratory laparotomy (full thickness biopsy, lymph nodes) - Treatment - chemotherapy - several protocols (prednisolone, vincristine, cyclophosphamide), supportive therapy, vit C - Prognosis - uncertain ○ T-cell mean 5 months ○ B-cell mean 9 months

Question 83

Helicobacter mustelae what animal found within, results in, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 83

- Most ferrets have the bacteria, older females generally show clinical signs - Damages gastric mucosa, inhibits/reduces acid production, auto-immune component - Clinical signs -> gastritis +/- ulcers: vomiting, weight loss - 10% population - Diagnosis -> histopathology (not full thickness needed - so achieved via endoscope) - Treatment -> varied - treat for 14-21 days ○ Ranitidine/omeprazole, pepto-bismol, amoxicillin/clarithomycin, metronidazole

Question 84

List 5 main viral GIT issues within small mammals

Answer 84

1) FRECV (ferret enteric coronavirus) 2) FRSCV 3) rotavirus 4) rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus) 5) canine distemper virus

Question 85

What is FRECV and FRSCV what animal effect, effects, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 85

1. FRECV -> older ferrets, highly contagious!!! ○ Green mucoid diarrhoea (destroys gut lining - villus atrophy) 2. FRSCV -> younger ferrets ○ Abdominal polyadenomegaly, weight loss, anorexia Both -> fever, hyperproteinaemia (WOULD THINK OTHERWISE), Anaemia Diagnosis - ultrasound, histopathology GI/lymph nodes Treatment - none, aim only to reduce inflammatory response and support, usually fatal weeks to months - euthanasia

Question 86

Rotavirus and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus) what animal within, effects, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 86

3. rotavirus -> juvenile ferrets (mild in rabbits) ○ Severe dehydration, foul smelling ○ Diagnosis - RT-PCR ○ Treatment - antibiotics for 2nd infection, support feeding, hygiene, reduce stocking 4. Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (corona virus): GI signs, bloating, constipation ○ NO treatment, only prevention through vaccination and mosquito control

Question 87

GDV in exotics presentation, clinical signs, diagnosis and treatment

Answer 87

- Presentation - acute collapse to bloated abdomen and mild depression ○ Reduced to absent faecal production, soft faeces ○ Inappetence/anorexia - Clinical signs - painful, gassy abdomen, tympany - Diagnosis - X-ray: dilated gassy stomach, gas filled intestines cranial to stomach - Treatment - support (IVFT, analgesia), surgery

Question 88

Antibiotic induced GIT disease in exotics what can result, affected species and main drugs

Answer 88

- Fatal clostridial enterotoxaemia, enteritis, colitis - Affected species: rabbit, guinea pigs, chinchillas, hamsters - Main drugs: beta lactams: oral penicillins (can give injectables), oral cephalosporins, macrolides (erythromycin), lincosamides, tylosin, tetracyclines (GP)

Question 89

Ferret teeth anatomy when permanent erupt, how many PM, diet, behaviour and dental formula

Answer 89

- Permanent teeth erupt between 7 to 11 weeks of age - Supernumerary incisors are common - Three premolars only Diet - true carnivore Behaviour - hunt small vertebrate prey - biting, crushing, tearing, gnawing FORMULA - upper - I - 3,3 C - 1,1 P - 3,3 M - 1,1 - lower - I - 3,3, C - 1,1, P - 3,3, M - 2,2

Question 90

Ferret common teeth problems and opening of mouths

Answer 90

Common problems - Fractured and worn canines - Progressive periodontal disease with plaque, calculus, gingivitis, tooth root abscess - Congenital malocclusion Mouth opens all the way - no need for scope

Question 91

Rabbit dental anatomy when deciduous teeth are shed, peg teeth, type of teeth and gape

Answer 91

- Deciduous teeth are shed before or just after birth - Second upper incisor, peg teeth, sit behind the first upper incisors, rodents lack peg teeth - Aradicular, hypsodont, elodont, anisognathic - Narrow gape -> mouth only opens about 1cm -need otoscope and fingers

Question 92

Rabbit dental anatomy part of the tooth, cheek teeth type and dental formula

Answer 92

Clinical crown, reserve crown, apex (no true root) Incisors and cheek teeth - Cheek teeth are all molariform (no difference between premolars and molars) FORMULA - I -2,1 P - 3,2 M - 3,3

Question 93

Dental disease obvious presentations

Answer 93

``` - Externally visible lesions ○ Overgrown incisors ○ Facial deformities § Osteomyelitis § Abscesses of soft tissues - hard pus and will have a mineralised capsule too thus need to be removed surgically § Overgrown diverted crowns § Impacted roots ○ Eyes § Blocked tear ducts § Retrobulbar abscess § Nasal discharge ```

Question 94

Dental disease less obvious signs

Answer 94

``` ○ Slobbers - mouth, paw -> stickiness of back of paws, dry discharge, drooling may not be obvious ○ Poor grooming - matted fur, uneaten caecotrophs ○ Gut stasis § Reduced faecal production § Reduced dropping size § Inactivity § Reduced appetite § Only eating treats ```

Question 95

Acquired dental dystrophy cause and what occurs early in disease and sequalae

Answer 95

○ Loss of calcium (diet/disease) ○ Injury to tooth and alveolus ○ Congenital malocclusion - Early disease ○ Weakened ligament and laminar bone (alveolar bone) ○ Altered tooth wear and pressure - malocclusion can lead to overgrowths - Sequelae ○ Curvature, rotation and impaction of teeth ○ Spur formation -> Ulcers -> changes the teeth wear as well ○ Osteomyelitis Fractured or crumbling crowns - once the pulp dies and the tooth is no longer growing leads to end stage ADD

Question 96

Acquired dental dystrophy sequele advanced signs

Answer 96

○ Bony deformation of mandible and maxilla ○ Extension of infection into soft tissues ○ Impingement on surrounding structures § Nasal passages § Eyes § Tear ducts ○ Without infection teeth eventually stop growing ○ With infection - meltdown

Question 97

Emergency treatment for rabbit teeth

Answer 97

- NEVER USE NAIL CLIPPERS ON RABBIT TEETH -> will fracture the tooth - Pain relief - Respiratory support - Nutrition ○ Shorten incisors ○ Syringe feed - Rehydrate - Treat the abscess later

Question 98

What are the 7 steps in the treatment of a dental abscess

Answer 98

1) identify the teeth involved 2) extract the tooth 3) instill proloxamer gel or marsupilise 4) check other teeth and other effects 5) pain relief 6) gut support 7) antibiotics

Question 99

In terms of identifying the teeth involved and extracting in dental abscess how perform

Answer 99

``` 1. Identify the teeth involved ○ Probing ○ Radiographs or CT ○ Open and debride abscess § Caseous debris § Capsule (mineralised and fibrous) 2. Extract tooth ○ Molar luxators ○ Incisor luxators ○ Patience ○ Don't twist or pull ○ Teeth can grow back from pulp left behind ```

Question 100

In mandibular incisor abscess, mandibular molars, maxillary incisors and maxillary cheek teeth abscess what should also check

Answer 100

``` ○ Mandibular incisor abscesses § Check tooth 1,2 as well ○ Mandibular molars § Last cheek tooth vessels ○ Maxillary incisors § Impact on tear ducts ○ Maxillary cheek teeth § Impact on retrobulbar space § Impact on nasal passages ```

Question 101

for treating tooth abscesses what pain relief, gut support and antibiotics to use

Answer 101

``` 5. Pain relief ○ Buprenorphine 3 days ○ Meloxicam 2 weeks 6. Gut support ○ Syringe feed 24 hours ○ close monitoring of dropping 7. Antibiotics ○ Based on culture ○ At least 2 weeks ○ Monitor gut function ```