FINAL EXAM Flashcards

Question

Radioactive isotopes

Answer 1

unstable, nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy

Answer 2

periods=rows groups=columns Main group elements 1A-8A

Answer 3

1st. lowest energy, Max 2 electrons 2nd. Next highest, Max 8 electrons 3rd. Highest energy. Max 8

Answer 4

-outermost occupied shell -if valence shell has missing electrons, more prone to form bonds/compounds

Answer 5

Shared electrons

Answer 6

sjared 4 electrons

Answer 7

Shared 6 electrons

Answer 8

transfer of electrons

Answer 9

between opposite poles of charged (polar) molecules (weakest bonds)

Answer 10

Amount of E- attraction of atom in covalent bond

Answer 11

Even electron sharing

Answer 12

Uneven electron sharing

Answer 13

Atom that has gained or lost 1 or more electrons

Answer 14

neg charge

Answer 15

Pos charge

Answer 16

Precipitation acid-base neutrlazation Redox=oxidations-reduction

Answer 17

stored/postion

Answer 18

the kinetic energy of molecules

Answer 19

measurment of thermal energy

Answer 20

thermal energy transfer

Answer 21

def shape, def vol, organized @ molecular level, Molecules very close, little movement

Answer 22

Def vol, no def shape, not organized, molecules are close, moderate shape

Answer 23

no def vol or shape, not organized, molecules are far apart, lots of movement

Answer 24

amount of heat to completely vaporize liquid after boiling

Answer 25

amount of heat to completely melt solids after melting point

Answer 26

chemical bonds are broken or formed, changes chemical makeup

Answer 27

homogenous mix tiny particles

Answer 28

substance in which something is dissolved

Answer 29

thing dissolved in solvent

Answer 30

a solution in which water acts as solvent

Answer 31

1.polar 2.cohesive 3.high surface tension 4.high heat capacity 5.high heat of vaporization 6.good solvent 7.ice floats

Answer 32

Provide hydrogen ions in water. strong release ions easily, weak is opposite

Answer 33

can accept hydrogen ions in water. strong holds ions tightly, weak opp

Answer 34

Logarithmic measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions.

Answer 35

1-14. less than 7 is acid more than 7 is base example PH 14 has 10^-14 hydrogen ions

Answer 36

Combo of substances that prevent/resist a drastic change in PH. Roughly equal mix of weak acid and its conjugate base

Answer 37

molecules with the same molecular formulas, but different arrangements of atoms

Answer 38

two X's on the same side

Answer 39

two X's on opposite sitdes

Answer 40

mirrored X's

Answer 41

molecule with the same chemical formula as another molecule but a different atomic arrangement, meaning the atoms are connected in a different order

Answer 42

Breaking down a polymer w/ aid of water

Answer 43

chemical reaction that joins two molecules together to form a larger, more complex molecule by removing a water molecule (H₂O) in the process

Answer 44

Contain C,O,H w/ multi hydroxyl groups, alot made by plants

Answer 45

simple sugar/reducing surgar building block of carbs

Answer 46

Pentoses-5carbons, deoxyribose, ribose Hexoses-6 carbons, glucose, fructose, galactose

Answer 47

Joins 2 sugars

Answer 48

2 monosacs, simple sugars not reducing

Answer 49

galactose, glucose

Answer 50

fructose and glucose

Answer 51

big molecules, made by plants, 2 molecules, 20%amylose +80%amylopectin

Answer 52

how animals store energy for later, stored in liver&muscle, up to 1 million glucose

Answer 53

in the walls of plants, humans cannot digest

Answer 54

found in incesct exoskeleton and fungal walls

Answer 55

found in bacteria cell walls

Answer 56

building blocks of lipids 12-22 carbons carboxyl groups on 1 end non polar hydrophobic uncharged

Answer 57

no double bonds solid @ room temp Stack easily max# of hydrogens

Answer 58

atleast 1 double bond liquid at room temp dont stack tightly fewer hydrogens

Answer 59

glycerol+3 fatty acids

Answer 60

only 1 glycerol 2 fatty acids organic group attached by a phosphate group charged heads

Answer 61

have 4 ring steroid nucleus

Answer 62

Estrogen, testosterone, cortisol

Answer 63

Building blocks of protein Every amino acid has amino group &carboxyl group and variable side chain (r) held together by peptide bond/amide bond

Answer 64

1.enzymes 2.storage of amino acids 3.Transport of sub in cell mem 4.defense against disease 5.hormone 6.receptor 7.structure 8.motor

Answer 65

Alanine Ala A Arginine Arg R Asparagine Asn N Aspartic Acid Asp D Cysteine Cys C Glutamine Gln Q Glutamic Acid Glu E Glycine Gly G Histidine His H Isoleucine Ile I Leucine Leu L Lysine Lys K Methionine Met M Phenylalanine Phe F Proline Pro P Serine Ser S Threonine Thr T Tryptophan Trp W Tyrosine Tyr Y Valine Val V

Answer 66

chain of amino acids

Answer 67

local folding, alpha helix, beta pleated

Answer 68

Overll/global folding

Answer 69

only some proteins have. only when more than one poly peptide

Answer 70

unfolding of protein loses function

Answer 71

complex that helps protein fold

Answer 72

transcribed translated

Answer 73

Deoxyribonucleic acid Deoxyribose Usually double strand tymine

Answer 74

Ribonucleic acid Ribose Uracil usually single strand both have a,c,g

Answer 75

adenine, guanine

Answer 76

cytosine, thymine, uracil

Answer 77

the monosac U v T SS v s

Answer 78

DNA strands face opposite ways

Answer 79

adenosine triphosphate. favorite way for cells to transfer energy

Answer 80

Domains: Bacteria, Archaea Key Structures: Nucleoid (DNA region, no membrane) Ribosomes (protein synthesis) Cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer) Cell wall (peptidoglycan in bacteria) Surface-to-volume ratio: Higher ratio = more efficient exchange.

Answer 81

Domains: eukarya (kingdoms animalia, plantae, fungi) Main Components: Plasma Membrane: Selective barrier Cytoplasm: Cell contents outside nucleus Cytosol: Fluid part of cytoplasm Organelles: Specialized functions

Answer 82

Nuclear envelope (double membrane seperated by 20-40nanometers) Chromatin (DNA + histone proteins) → Chromosomes Nucleolus (makes rRNA & ribosomes)

Answer 83

40% protein, 60% rRNA; protein synthesis

Answer 84

Rough ER: Ribosomes attached, protein synthesis, glyco proteins, secretory proteins, membrane proteins, some phospholipids Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, detoxification

Answer 85

Modifies, sorts, ships proteins

Answer 86

Transport substances

Answer 87

Digestive enzymes, waste breakdown

Answer 88

storage (eg water in plants)

Answer 89

breakdown fatty acids, detoxify

Answer 90

ATP production Cristae(folds) Matrix (inner fluid) Inner/outer membranes

Answer 91

photosynthesis own DNA and RIBOSOMES Thylakoids(disks) Grana (stacks) Stroma (fluid)

Answer 92

Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from bacteria

Answer 93

cell shape, movement Form 4nm rods

Answer 94

Transport organelles around, cell division 25nm in diameter

Answer 95

structural support 10nm most common protein keratin

Answer 96

made of two centrioles and always at right angle

Answer 97

in eukaryotes whip-like,

Answer 98

short, hair-like appendages on the surface of eukaryotic cells that are crucial for both cell movement and sensing the environment.

Answer 99

Animals cells do not have cell walls so be careful (when we mean cell membrane say it and not wall) in plants the walls are made of cellulose In fungi it can be cellulose, and or ketone, and or glycomanin Algae can have cellulose, auger, karagenin, pectinmanins, and some have some made of minerals

Answer 100

peptidoglycan

Answer 101

Protect/barrier Regulate echange w/ enviroment Communication structure

Answer 102

lipid w/ carbs attached

Answer 103

Protein with carbs attached

Answer 104

embedded in phospholipid bilayer

Answer 105

not embedded

Answer 106

not uniform

Answer 107

lets one thing through along concentration gradient

Answer 108

lets 2 things going in the same direction. one with and one against concentration gradiaent

Answer 109

1 going in, 1 going out, one with and one against concentration gradient

Answer 110

hydrophobic tails, hyrdrophillic heads

Answer 111

span entire membrane

Answer 112

transport Receptors (signal detection) Enzymes (catalysis) Linkers (attachment) Cell identity markers (recognition)

Answer 113

Glycoproteins + glycolipids → cell recognition & adhesion a thin, carbohydrate-rich layer that covers the surface of all cells in the body

Answer 114

diffusion of water

Answer 115

Isotonic: No net water movement Hypotonic: Water enters cell (lysis in animals, turgid in plants) Hypertonic: Water leaves cell (crenation in animals, plasmolysis in plants)

Answer 116

Diffusion, Facilitated diffusion(channels, carriers), no energy req

Answer 117

Requires ATP Electrochemical gradients Against gradient

Answer 118

symport and antiport

Answer 119

materials exit cell

Answer 120

materials enter cell

Answer 121

process in which cells engulf and destroy foreign particles, such as bacteria, dead cells, and debris

Answer 122

the uptake of extracellular fluids and dissolved solutes, such as fat droplets, vitamins, and antigens.

Answer 123

specific molecules (ligands) bind to cell surface receptors, triggering their uptake into the cell.

Answer 124

Contact points between different cells in a multicellular organism (tissues)

Answer 125

Found only in plants, plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent cells allowing faster communication

Answer 126

Occludins and claudins

Answer 127

Prevent separation under stress and prevent leakage between cells

Answer 128

Cadherins (attached to microfilaments inside the cell)

Answer 129

Form a belt of attachment and prevent separation under stress

Answer 130

Cadherins attached to intermediate filaments

Answer 131

Prevent separation, act like “buttons” attaching cells in certain spots

Answer 132

Integrins attaching to extracellular matrix and intermediate filaments

Answer 133

Anchor cells to extracellular material, like “half desmosomes”

Answer 134

Form channels for communication between cells, animal equivalent of plasmodesmata

Answer 135

Energy can be transferred and transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed (law of conservation of energy)

Answer 136

Every energy transfer increases entropy (S), the measure of randomness/disorder

Answer 137

Measure of disorder; higher in gases, lower in solids

Answer 138

Measure of energy associated with substances in a reaction (heat of reaction)

Answer 139

Exothermic = negative ΔH (heat released). Endothermic = positive ΔH (heat absorbed)

Answer 140

Negative ΔH (heat released) and positive ΔS (entropy increases)

Answer 141

Energy barrier needed to start a reaction

Answer 142

Temperature, concentration of reactants/products, catalysts

Answer 143

Substance that accelerates a reaction without being used up (enzymes in biology)

Answer 144

State where concentrations of reactants and products remain constant

Answer 145

When stress is applied to equilibrium, the system shifts to counteract stress

Answer 146

Breaking down molecules (e.g., proteins → amino acids)

Answer 147

Building molecules (e.g., amino acids → protein)

Answer 148

7.3 kcal/mol

Answer 149

Biological catalysts that lower activation energy, increase reaction rate, are specific, regulated, efficient, and made of proteins

Answer 150

Region where substrate binds; enzyme may change shape slightly (induced fit)

Answer 151

Cofactors = non-protein helpers (inorganic ions). Coenzymes = organic molecules (often vitamins)

Answer 152

Apoenzyme = inactive enzyme without cofactor. Holoenzyme = active enzyme with cofactor

Answer 153

Concentration, temperature (denaturation risk), pH (optimal range), inhibitors

Answer 154

Binds in active site but not a substrate, blocking substrate

Answer 155

Binds elsewhere on proteins, changing enzyme shape

Answer 156

The slowest step (rate-limiting step)

Answer 157

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2. Carbon dioxide and water combine using light energy to produce glucose and oxygen.

Answer 158

An **autotroph** is an organism that makes its own food from inorganic sources, such as CO2 and water, using light or chemical energy.

Answer 159

A **heterotroph** is an organism that must obtain energy by consuming other organisms or organic molecules.

Answer 160

A **producer** (autotroph) creates its own food using sunlight or chemicals, while a **consumer** (heterotroph) must eat producers or other consumers for energy.

Answer 161

**Stomata** are pores on the underside of leaves that allow for **gas exchange**—CO2 enters, and O2 and water vapor exit.

Answer 162

Photosynthesis occurs in the **chloroplasts** of plant cells, mainly within the **mesophyll** tissue of leaves.

Answer 163

1) **Light-dependent reactions** – occur in the **thylakoid membranes**; convert light energy to ATP and NADPH. 2) **Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions)** – occurs in the **stroma**; uses ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into sugar.

Answer 164

**Red and blue light** are most effective for photosynthesis because they are absorbed by chlorophyll pigments, while **green light** is least effective because it is reflected.

Answer 165

Visible light ranges from about **380 to 750 nanometers (nm)**.

Answer 166

The main pigments are **chlorophyll a**, **chlorophyll b**, and **carotenoids**. Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment; chlorophyll b and carotenoids are accessory pigments.

Answer 167

**Chlorophyll a** has a **CH3 group**, while **chlorophyll b** has a **CHO group** on its porphyrin ring.

Answer 168

**Carotenoids** absorb wavelengths not absorbed by chlorophyll and protect the plant from excess light by acting as **photoprotective pigments**.

Answer 169

The photon excites an electron to a **higher energy level**; this energy is transferred through pigment molecules until it reaches the **reaction center**.

Answer 170

A **photosystem** is a complex of pigments and proteins that captures light energy. It contains a **reaction center** with a special pair of chlorophyll molecules and a **primary electron acceptor**.

Answer 171

**Photosystem II (PSII)** with a reaction center called **P680**, and **Photosystem I (PSI)** with a reaction center called **P700**.

Answer 172

**PSII** captures light energy to **split water molecules (photolysis)**, releasing **O2**, **protons (H⁺)**, and **electrons** that enter the electron transport chain.

Answer 173

It takes **four photons** to split **two H2O molecules** into O2, 4 H⁺, and 4 e⁻.

Answer 174

A series of carriers including **plastoquinone (Pq)**, **cytochrome complex**, and **plastocyanin (Pc)** that move electrons from PSII to PSI, creating a **proton gradient** used for ATP synthesis.

Answer 175

**PSI** receives electrons from the ETC and re-energizes them with light energy to reduce **NADP⁺ to NADPH**.

Answer 176

**ATP** and **NADPH**, which are used in the **Calvin cycle** to power carbon fixation.

Answer 177

ATP is produced by **chemiosmosis** when **ATP synthase** uses the **proton gradient** created across the thylakoid membrane to phosphorylate ADP.

Answer 178

In the **thylakoid membranes** of the chloroplast.

Answer 179

**NADPH** provides high-energy electrons and reducing power for the **Calvin cycle** to synthesize carbohydrates.

Answer 180

The **Calvin cycle** (light-independent reactions) uses **CO2**, **ATP**, and **NADPH** to produce **G3P (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate)**, a precursor to glucose.

Answer 181

1) **Carbon fixation** by **RuBisCO** enzyme attaching CO2 to RuBP. 2) **Reduction** phase using ATP and NADPH to form G3P. 3) **Regeneration** of RuBP from G3P using ATP.

Answer 182

**RuBisCO** (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase) catalyzes the reaction of CO2 with **RuBP**.

Answer 183

It takes **3 CO2 molecules** to produce **one G3P** (three turns of the Calvin cycle).

Answer 184

It takes **6 CO2 molecules** (six turns of the Calvin cycle) to produce one molecule of glucose.

Answer 185

**Inputs:** CO2, ATP, NADPH. **Outputs:** G3P (sugar), ADP, NADP⁺, and inorganic phosphate (Pi).

Answer 186

The **light reactions** provide **ATP and NADPH** to power the **Calvin cycle**, which returns **ADP, Pi, and NADP⁺** back to the light reactions.

Answer 187

**C3 photosynthesis** is the normal Calvin cycle pathway where CO2 is fixed directly by RuBisCO to form a 3-carbon compound (3-phosphoglycerate).

Answer 188

In hot, dry conditions, **photorespiration** occurs when RuBisCO binds O2 instead of CO2, wasting energy and reducing photosynthetic efficiency.

Answer 189

**C4 plants** (e.g., corn, sugarcane) fix CO2 into a 4-carbon compound using **PEP carboxylase** in mesophyll cells, then transport CO2 to bundle-sheath cells for the Calvin cycle.

Answer 190

It **minimizes photorespiration** and increases CO2 concentration for RuBisCO, improving efficiency in **hot, sunny climates**.

Answer 191

**CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism)** plants (e.g., cacti, pineapple) open **stomata at night** to fix CO2 into organic acids, then close stomata during the day to conserve water.

Answer 192

It conserves water in **arid environments** by separating CO2 uptake (night) and Calvin cycle (day) by time.

Answer 193

Photosynthesis **stores energy** in glucose molecules by using CO2 and H2O, while cellular respiration **releases energy** by breaking down glucose into CO2 and H2O. They are **complementary processes** in the carbon and energy cycles.

Answer 194

Double helix composed of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides.

Answer 195

Purines (adenine, guanine) and pyrimidines (cytosine, thymine).

Answer 196

Adenine pairs with thymine (A--T); guanine pairs with cytosine (G---C).

Answer 197

Hydrogen bonds.

Answer 198

Each new DNA molecule has one old strand and one newly synthesized strand.

Answer 199

At the origin of replication.

Answer 200

Topoisomerase.

Answer 201

Proteins that stabilize unwound DNA strands and prevent reannealing. Keep Fork Open

Answer 202

Y-shaped region where DNA is unwound and new strands are synthesized.

Answer 203

Provides a short RNA segment with a free 3′-OH group for DNA polymerase to extend.

Answer 204

DNA polymerase III.

Answer 205

Always in the 5′ to 3′ direction.

Answer 206

The DNA strand synthesized continuously toward the replication fork.

Answer 207

The strand synthesized discontinuously away from the fork in short Okazaki fragments.

Answer 208

Short segments of DNA formed on the lagging strand.

Answer 209

DNA polymerase I.

Answer 210

DNA ligase.

Answer 211

Connects Sugar Phosphate Backbone

Answer 212

≈500 bp/sec in bacteria; ≈50 bp/sec in eukaryotes.

Answer 213

Prokaryotes: one origin per chromosome; eukaryotes: multiple origins per chromosome.

Answer 214

DNA polymerases.

Answer 215

DNA polymerase and DNA ligase.

Answer 216

Permanent changes in the DNA sequence.

Answer 217

Protein bind single standed section protects genes near end of chromosome(human repeat = TTAGGG).

Answer 218

Extends telomeres to compensate for shortening during replication.

Answer 219

Germ cells, stem cells, and some cancer cells.

Answer 220

DNA wrapped around histone protein cores.

Answer 221

Complex of DNA and proteins forming chromosomes.

Answer 222

Tightly packed, transcriptionally inactive chromatin.

Answer 223

Loosely packed, transcriptionally active chromatin.

Answer 224

Cell replacement, tissue renewal, growth, development, and asexual reproduction.

Answer 225

Amoeba reproduction, regeneration of a sea star, growth from a plant clipping.

Answer 226

All the genetic material in a cell.

Answer 227

A single DNA molecule associated with proteins that contains genetic information.

Answer 228

The complex of DNA and proteins that makes up chromosomes.

Answer 229

Body cells that are diploid (2n) normal cell

Answer 230

Identical copies of a chromosome joined at a centromere.

Answer 231

The region where sister chromatids are attached.

Answer 232

Interphase (G1, S, G2) and Mitotic phase (Mitosis and Cytokinesis).

Answer 233

Duplicating organelles. 8-10hr

Answer 234

DNA replication occurs. 8 hourd

Answer 235

Cell prepares for division

Answer 236

Cell division

Answer 237

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.

Answer 238

Chromosome condenses and the mitotic spindle begins to form and nuclear envelope breaks down

Answer 239

Nuclear envelope breaks down and spindle fibers attach to kinetochores.

Answer 240

Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.

Answer 241

Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.

Answer 242

Nuclear membranes reform and chromosomes begin to decondense.

Answer 243

A structure made of microtubules that separates chromosomes during mitosis.

Answer 244

A protein structure on chromatids where spindle fibers attach.

Answer 245

Division of the cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.

Answer 246

Animal cells form a cleavage furrow; plant cells form a cell plate.

Answer 247

A type of asexual reproduction used by bacteria to divide.

Answer 248

Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) which form MPF (maturation/mitosis promoting factor).

Answer 249

G1 checkpoint, G2 checkpoint, and M (Anaphase) checkpoint.

Answer 250

Determines whether the cell will divide or enter G0 phase.

Answer 251

Checks for DNA damage and proper replication before mitosis.

Answer 252

Ensures all chromosomes are properly attached to spindle fibers before separation.

Answer 253

Platelet-derived growth factor that stimulates cell division.

Answer 254

Cells stop dividing when they become crowded.

Answer 255

Cells must be attached to a surface to divide.

Answer 256

Body cells that are diploid (2n).

Answer 257

Sex cells (sperm and egg) that are haploid (1n).

Answer 258

Cells with two sets of chromosomes (2n).

Answer 259

Cells with one set of chromosomes (1n).

Answer 260

The fertilized egg formed by the fusion of gametes.

Answer 261

micrograph of metaphase, chromosomes arrangeed in homologous pairs

Answer 262

XX = female, XY = male.

Answer 263

Non-sex chromosomes (chromosomes 1–22 in humans).

Answer 264

Animal, only haploid cells are gametes, alternation of generations, and diploid only occurs in the zygote.

Answer 265

Homologous chromosomes separate.

Answer 266

Sister chromatids separate.

Answer 267

Homologous chromosomes pair up (synapsis) and crossing over occurs.

Answer 268

Homologous pairs align at the metaphase plate.

Answer 269

Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles.

Answer 270

Two haploid cells form; chromosomes are still double.

Answer 271

Sister chromatids finally separate.

Answer 272

Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes.

Answer 273

Independent assortment, random fertilization, and crossing over.

Answer 274

The transmission of traits from parents to offspring.

Answer 275

The study of heredity and variation.

Answer 276

A heritable feature that varies among individuals.

Answer 277

A variant of a character.

Answer 278

A monk who discovered the basic principles of heredity using pea plants.

Answer 279

Plants that produce offspring identical to themselves.

Answer 280

Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits.

Answer 281

Mating of two organisms to study inheritance.

Answer 282

The P (or F0) generation in a genetic cross.

Answer 283

The hybrid offspring of the parental generation.

Answer 284

The offspring of F1 individuals.

Answer 285

A cross that studies inheritance of one trait.

Answer 286

Alternative versions of a gene that account for variations in inherited characters.

Answer 287

1. Alternative versions of genes account for variations in inherited character we call these alleles 2. For each inherited character, an organism inherits two alleles, one from each parent 3. if the two alleles differ, one determines the trait, called the dominant allele. other is not detectable, called recessive allele. 4. Sperm and egg carries only one allele for each character. the twi alleles seperate during gamete production

Answer 288

Having two identical alleles for a gene.

Answer 289

Having two different alleles for a gene.

Answer 290

Segment of DNA that codes for a trait, RNA

Answer 291

The ratio of visible traits that appear in offspring after a genetic cross (e.g., 3:1 in a monohybrid cross)

Answer 292

The ratio of genetic combinations of alleles among offspring (e.g., 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa)

Answer 293

To determine the genotype of an organism expressing a dominant trait by crossing it with a homozygous recessive individual

Answer 294

A cross between parents differing in two traits, tracking inheritance of two genes simultaneously

Answer 295

Genes for different traits separate independently during gamete formation if they are on different chromosomes

Answer 296

No, dominant alleles can be rare in a population

Answer 297

One allele completely masks the effect of another in heterozygotes

Answer 298

The heterozygote shows a blended intermediate phenotype between the two homozygous forms

Answer 299

Both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed without blending (e.g., AB blood type)

Answer 300

Many genes have multiple possible variants in a population, such as the ABO blood group system

Answer 301

IA, IB, and i — IA and IB are codominant, i is recessive

Answer 302

A single gene influences multiple phenotypic traits

Answer 303

Interaction where one gene affects or masks the expression of another gene

Answer 304

B/b determines pigment color, E/e controls pigment deposition — ee prevents pigment causing yellow coat

Answer 305

A trait controlled by two or more genes with additive effects (e.g., skin color, height)

Answer 306

A trait that varies along a continuum due to polygenic inheritance

Answer 307

Environmental conditions can influence gene expression (e.g., nutrition, temperature)

Answer 308

A diagram showing inheritance of a trait through generations using standardized symbols

Answer 309

Their symbol is filled in or shaded

Answer 310

An individual heterozygous for a recessive disorder allele but phenotypically normal

Answer 311

Mating between close relatives, increasing homozygosity for harmful recessive alleles

Answer 312

Achondroplasia or Huntington’s disease

Answer 313

Prenatal testing such as amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling, or postnatal testing

Answer 314

Genes are located on chromosomes + Movement of chromosomes during meiosis + fertilization accounts for inheritance patterns

Answer 315

Thomas Hunt Morgan using fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster)

Answer 316

The normal, most common form found in natural populations (denoted w⁺)

Answer 317

A variant due to mutation that differs from the wild type

Answer 318

XX = female, XY = male

Answer 319

Used by some insects (e.g., grasshoppers) XX = F X = M

Answer 320

Used by birds and some fish ZW = F ZZ = M

Answer 321

Found in bees and ants Females diploid Males haploid

Answer 322

Genes located on a sex chromosome (X or Y)

Answer 323

Males have only one X chromosome so a single recessive allele causes the disorder

Answer 324

Red-green color blindness, Hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy

Answer 325

XIST, Methylation, and barr body

Answer 326

RNA wraps around Chromosome

Answer 327

Methylation of DNA - methyl group added to DNA molecule- CH3 Prevents Transcription

Answer 328

an inactivated, COndensed X chromosomes found in the somatic cells of female mammals

Answer 329

Genes located close together on the same chromosome; inherited together; do NOT assort independently.

Answer 330

Genes on different chromosomes OR far apart on the same chromosome; assort independently.

Answer 331

1% recombination frequency = 1 map unit (1% chance of crossing over between genes).

Answer 332

Failure of homologous chromosomes (meiosis I) or sister chromatids (meiosis II) to separate.

Answer 333

Abnormal number of chromosomes resulting from nondisjunction.

Answer 334

Individual has only 1 copy of a chromosome (2n − 1).

Answer 335

Individual has 3 copies of a chromosome (2n + 1).

Answer 336

Having more than two full sets of chromosomes (3n, 4n). Common in plants.

Answer 337

Trisomy 21 2 copies of ever chromosome except 21

Answer 338

XXY male; sterile, may develop breast tissue.

Answer 339

Extra Y chromosome; male; usually taller; no defined syndrome.

Answer 340

XXX female; normal phenotype; sometimes taller.

Answer 341

XO female; short, sterile, poor breast development.

Answer 342

Inheritance of genes inherited outside of norm 46 chromosomes

Answer 343

3 units that code for amino acids, 5’-3’

Answer 344

The DNA strand used by RNA polymerase to build RNA (complementary to RNA).

Answer 345

Matches RNA sequence except RNA has U instead of T.

Answer 346

More than one codon can code for the same amino acid.

Answer 347

The process of making RNA from a DNA template.

Answer 348

Enzyme that synthesizes RNA. Opens DNA, and binds to promoter

Answer 349

DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription.

Answer 350

Proteins that help RNA polymerase bind to the promoter.

Answer 351

RNA Polymerase, 1 or more transcription factors, binds at promoter w/ tata box

Answer 352

RNA polymerase moves 5’→3’ building RNA.

Answer 353

Polyadenylation signal causes RNA transcript to detach. Signals to add adenine at the end, 50-250, comes after stop codon

Answer 354

~40 nucleotides per second.

Answer 355

Modifications to pre-mRNA before leaving nucleus (cap, poly-A tail, splicing).

Answer 356

Protects mRNA from degradation helps export from nucleus. Help ribosomes attach to 5’

Answer 357

Non-coding regions of RNA removed during RNA splicing.

Answer 358

Coding regions kept in final mRNA.

Answer 359

Complex that removes introns and joins exons.

Answer 360

RNA molecule that acts as an enzyme (ex: helps splice RNA).

Answer 361

Part of intron used as exon

Answer 362

Increases genetic variation in cross over.

Answer 363

Carries instructions Copy or a gene Uracil not thymine

Answer 364

Carries and amino acid. Hairpin loop

Answer 365

Part of ribosome, helps translation

Answer 366

Where amino acid binds to tRNA (3' end).

Answer 367

Complementary to the codon

Answer 368

Enzyme that attaches the correct amino acid to tRNA (uses ATP).

Answer 369

rRNA + protein; 70S(50,30) in prokaryotes, 80S(60,40) in eukaryotes.

Answer 370

Aminoacyl-tRNA binding site.

Answer 371

Holds tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.

Answer 372

Exit site where uncharged tRNA leaves ribosome.

Answer 373

AUG (codes for methionine).

Answer 374

mRNA, initiator tRNA (Met=AUG), TRANSLATION INITIATION COMPLEX.

Answer 375

Ribosome moves 5’→3’; peptide bond forms; requires 2 GTP.

Answer 376

Stop codon enters A site; chain release begins.

Answer 377

adds water to free the completed polypeptide.

Answer 378

Play a role in triggering a gene to/not to be transcribe

Answer 379

Protect from mutations and other damage to dna

Answer 380

Protein complexes that assist with proper protein folding.

Answer 381

Changes to a protein after translation (cutting, adding groups, etc.).

Answer 382

Part of the protein is cut off to activate it and make it functional.

Answer 383

Carbohydrate, lipid, phosphate, or other chemical groups may be added to proteins.

Answer 384

Make proteins that stay and function in the cytosol.

Answer 385

Make proteins destined for secretion, plasma membrane, or organelles (ex: lysosome).

Answer 386

Short sequence on a growing polypeptide that directs ribosome to the ER.

Answer 387

Binds to signal peptide and escorts ribosome to the ER.

Answer 388

Multiple ribosomes translating the same mRNA at once, increasing protein production.

Answer 389

Occur simultaneously; one mRNA may code for multiple proteins.

Answer 390

Not simultaneous; transcription in nucleus, translation in cytosol; mRNA codes for one protein.

Answer 391

Permanent change in DNA sequence.

Answer 392

Change in one nucleotide/base.

Answer 393

Change of nt, but same amino acid

Answer 394

Changes in amino acid-protein change

Answer 395

Changes amino acid to a stop codon; protein change, effect varies depending on location.(usually harmful).

Answer 396

changes all amino acids after the mutation (usually very harmful).

Answer 397

Caused by DNA replication error.

Answer 398

Caused by external factors (mutagens like chemicals or radiation).

Answer 399

Can allow cells to adapt or gain a beneficial trait.

Answer 400

Can cause loss of function; cells may not survive.

Answer 401

Gene regulation is the process of turning genes on or off; controls when and how much RNA/protein is made.

Answer 402

Heritable changes in gene expression that do not change the DNA sequence (e.g., chromatin modification).

Answer 403

Processes that repress transcription

Answer 404

When multiple genes are regulated together by the same control elements.

Answer 405

Small RNAs (miRNA, siRNA) that block translation or trigger mRNA degradation.

Answer 406

Regulation of enzyme activity or regulation of transcription/translation to control metabolism.

Answer 407

Fast response: activates or inactivates enzymes already made.

Answer 408

Slower response: controls how much enzyme is produced.

Answer 409

Everything that is transcribed from one promoter.

Answer 410

A cluster of genes regulated together (promoter + operator + genes).

Answer 411

DNA sequence acting as an on/off switch to signal when transcription unit is needed, In promoter region

Answer 412

Molecule that turns on a gene that is usually OFF (common in catabolism).

Answer 413

Protein that binds operator to turn gene expression OFF.

Answer 414

Molecule that activates a repressor so it can shut off the operon.

Answer 415

Normally ON; turned OFF when a corepressor activates repressor (ex: trp). Binds to repressor

Answer 416

Normally OFF; turned ON when inducer inactivates repressor (ex: lac).

Answer 417

Different cell types express different genes appropriate to their function

Answer 418

Chemical modifications to histones or DNA that affect transcription.

Answer 419

Adds acetyl groups (COCH3) to N-terminus; promotes transcription; Euchromatin

Answer 420

Adds methyl groups (CH3); usually condenses chromatin; inhibits transcription.

Answer 421

Adds phosphate groups (PO4); loosens chromatin; increases transcription; euchromatin.

Answer 422

Adds methyl groups to cytosine; reduces transcription; can silence genes, Can be passed to offspring

Answer 423

Modifications can be inherited

Answer 424

Involved in reducing transcription of genes usually active

Answer 425

involved in increasing transcription of genes usually inactive

Answer 426

DNA Sequences that regulate transcription, can repress or activate.

Answer 427

Bind enhancers; increase transcription of specific genes. Have DNA binding region, activation region.

Answer 428

Mechanisms that reduce or block transcription.

Answer 429

Post-transcriptional control: different mRNAs from same gene.

Answer 430

Post-transcriptional control: Regulatory proteins bind mRNA to stop ribosome binding.

Answer 431

Post-transcriptional control: Sequences (often 3' UTR) that control how long mRNA lasts. Pro: minutes Euk: hours to weeks

Answer 432

Adding phosphate to proteins to activate or deactivate them.

Answer 433

Small RNA that binds mRNA to block translation or cause degradation. 22nt ss

Answer 434

Small interfering RNA; binds to DNA triggers RNA interference and gene silencing. ds

Answer 435

biological process where carbohydrate molecules (sugars or glycans) are covalently attached to proteins or lipids

Answer 436

Local: Used between adjacent or nearby cells (Paracrine, Synaptic, Cell junction). Long-distance/endocrine signaling: Hormones travel long distances in the bloodstream

Answer 437

Uses hormones between adjacent cells.

Answer 438

Used in the nervous system to send a signal from one neuron to the next.

Answer 439

Allow communication between adjacent cells. provides faster communication because the signal can diffuse through the gaps without having to cross two cell membranes.

Answer 440

-Reception: **The arrival of the signal (ligand, chemical) at the target cell** -Transduction:** The signal propagation (relay) inside the cell** -Response:**How the cell reacts to the signal.**

Answer 441

any cell that has a receptor for that specific signal.

Answer 442

Receptors are made of proteins. Cell Membrane Receptors: Located in the cell membrane. Used if the ligand is water soluble (cannot cross the membrane). Intracellular Receptors: Located in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Used if the ligand is lipid soluble (can cross the cell membrane

Answer 443

GPCRs, RTKs, ligand-gated ion channels.

Answer 444

Occurs in cell membrane. 1.)G protein hangs out near GPCR and works with it 2.) Ligand binds to GPCR 3.) receptor changes shape 4.)activates G protein releasing GDP, Binds to GTP 5.)active G protein travels and interacts with enzyme (often adenylyl cyclase) 6.)Activated adenylyl cyclase converts ATP to cAMP and 2 phosphates 7.)signal is terminated when the G protein hydrolyzes GTP→GDP and is reset.

Answer 445

Converts ATP to cAMP.

Answer 446

Occurs in Cell membrane 1.) Two ligands must bind to two nearby RTKs. 2.) The two RTKs come together, forming a dimer. 3.) Once dimerized, the receptor uses 6 ATPs to phosphorylate itself (adds a phosphate to each of the six tyrosine amino acids on the inside). 4.) The fully activated RTK can then activate other proteins (relay proteins) to trigger a cellular response.

Answer 447

An enzyme that add phosphates (phosphorylation).

Answer 448

Enzyme that remove phosphates (deactivation).

Answer 449

Sequential activation of kinases → leads to the amplification of the signal because one kinase can activate multiple other kinases, and so on, resulting in the binding of a single ligand activating multiple final molecules.

Answer 450

-First = Original ligand outside cell -second = internal molecules that work inside the cell and can diffuse around like cAMP, Ca²⁺. Allow the signal to be relayed inside the cell.

Answer 451

cAMP; IP3; DAG; Ca²⁺.

Answer 452

Turn genes on/off for final response (how the cell reacts to the signal)

Answer 453

Different cells have different receptors & relay proteins that react differently to the same signal.

Answer 454

Enzyme activation; ion channel regulation.

Answer 455

Organize kinases to increase speed & accuracy.

Answer 456

Programmed cell death.

Answer 457

1.)Ligand detaches; GTP→GDP 2.)phosphatases deactivate kinases 3.)cAMP degraded.

Answer 458

manipulation of genetic material (DNA) for a particular purpose.

Answer 459

Older Genetic Engineering was selective breeding (selecting for certain characteristics in crops), which has been done since humans started growing crops.

Answer 460

(Modern Biotech) involves more direct DNA manipulation for a particular purpose. allows us to go in, cut up DNA, put it back together, and change an organism's genetics, which is an ability we have had for only 40-50 years.

Answer 461

Origin/Why: naturally made by bacteria (e.g., EcoRI from E. coli, Hae3). Their original biological purpose is to fight viruses (in the bacteria they come from) by cutting the viral DNA. Function: To cut DNA in the middle ("endo-nuclease") at a specific 4-10 base pair sequence. They cut the sugar phosphate bond (the backbone).

Answer 462

Sticky = Ex. EcoRI, overhangs (DNA doesn't like to be single-stranded, so these ends are "looking for something to base pair and stick to.") blunt = Ex. Hae3, straight cuts.

Answer 463

Permanently connect two pieces of DNA by Sealing sugar-phosphate bonds. Why: When sticky ends form hydrogen bonds, the connection is not permanent, so ligase is needed to permanently connect the backbones.

Answer 464

Makes cDNA from RNA template; no introns. **Why/origin: comes from viruses (e.g., HIV). Its use is valuable in biotech because when cDNA is made from eukaryotic mRNA, the introns have been removed. This allows the intron-free eukaryotic gene to be spliced onto a plasmid and put into bacteria (which don't have introns) to be used as a factory to make the protein.**

Answer 465

Intron-free copy or complimentary DNA

Answer 466

Amplifies a specific DNA sequence that we are interested in. via denaturation, annealing, extension.

Answer 467

Taq DNA polymerase; it is thermostable and can withstand the very high temperatures required for the reaction without denaturing.

Answer 468

To allow the short DNA primers (needed because DNA polymerase can't bind to single-stranded DNA) to bind (anneal) to the template.

Answer 469

1.) Denaturation: Heat to about 95°C. Why: To separate the double-stranded template DNA into single strands so the primers can bind. 2.) Priming (Annealing): Cool to 50-65°C. Why: To allow the short DNA primers (needed because DNA polymerase can't bind to single-stranded DNA) to bind (anneal) to the template. 3.) Elongation (Extension): Heat to 72°C. Why: This is the preferred temperature for Taq DNA polymerase, where the new DNA strands are made. Repeated 35 times

Answer 470

Separates and visualize DNA fragments DNA has a negative charge and therefore moves toward the positive pole. The gel acts as a "molecular sieve," causing small pieces to travel faster and farther.

Answer 471

Function: To determine the exact nucleotide sequence of DNA. A PCR reaction is run with the addition of dideoxy nucleotides (ddNTPs). These lack the hydroxyl groups needed for bonding, so when one is incorporated, it terminates elongation. Each ddNTP is tagged with a different fluorescent dye (A, T, C, G).

Answer 472

Fluorescent probes bind specific chromosome regions.

Answer 473

Measures gene expression via reverse transcription + PCR.

Answer 474

Tests gene expression by hybridizing cDNA to thousands of probes.

Answer 475

Unique electrophoresis pattern of DNA fragments.

Answer 476

can do mitosis and has the potential to become more than one type of cell. totipotent, pluripotent, or multipotent

Answer 477

Can become any cell incl. Including embryonic and placental

Answer 478

Can become any adult somatic cell. **e.g. embryonic stem cells**

Answer 479

Can become more than one cell type, usually related types **e.g. blood cells** Adult stem cells tend to be multipotent

Answer 480

Adult nucleus into enucleated egg → clone.

Answer 481

A piece of DNA that has parts that come from two different organisms.

Answer 482

Origin/Why: The system originated as a bacterial "immune system." Allows the cutting and insertion of specific DNA sequences in a living cell. CRISPR is the RNA part that determines where the work is done (the target sequence), and CAS (a nuclease) is the enzyme that does the cutting.

Answer 483

Gene therapy; GM crops; disease diagnosis; forensics; recombinant proteins.

Answer 484

Receptor in the cell membrane that opens an ion channel when ligand binds.

Answer 485

Water-soluble ligands.

Answer 486

Mediate essential functions like nerve signals and muscle contraction.

Answer 487

Cytoplasm or nucleus.

Answer 488

Lipid-soluble ligands that can diffuse through cell membrane

Answer 489

Changes in gene expression.

Answer 490

Adds phosphate group to a protein (phosphorylation), often activating it/leading to amplification

Answer 491

One activation can trigger many downstream kinases → amplifies signal.

Answer 492

Removes phosphate groups (dephosphorylation), usually inactivating proteins.

Answer 493

Small, water-soluble molecules that diffuse through cell to relay/amplify signal.

Answer 494

cAMP, IP3, DAG, Ca²⁺.

Answer 495

ATP with two phosphates removed; phosphate bond position differs from AMP.

Answer 496

Low in cytosol, high in ER.

Answer 497

GPCR activates G protein → activates PLC.

Answer 498

Cuts PIP2 into DAG (membrane-bound) and IP3 (diffusible).

Answer 499

Second messenger that opens ligand-gated Ca²⁺ channels on ER.

Answer 500

Membrane-bound portion of PIP2; activates PKC with Ca²⁺.

Answer 501

Triggers events like muscle contraction and nerve function.

Answer 502

Signal to turn on/off for final response

Answer 503

signal can have a direct effect on the activity of one or more proteins.

Answer 504

Enzyme activation; opening/closing intracellular ion channels.

Answer 505

Cells require multiple receptors activated to trigger full response.

Answer 506

Different cells have different relay molecules and pathways.

Answer 507

Hold enzymes in a pathway adjacent to each other → faster and more accurate signaling.

Answer 508

Ligand diffuses away Enzymes degrade ligand ligand is endocytosed phosphatases deactivate kinases.

Answer 509

Programmed cell death.

Answer 510

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP)

Answer 511

Catabolic; breaks down glucose to make ATP

Answer 512

NAD+, FAD, NADP+

Answer 513

2 electrons → NADH

Answer 514

2 electrons → NADPH

Answer 515

4 electrons → FADH2

Answer 516

Mitochondrial matrix

Answer 517

Inner mitochondrial membrane

Answer 518

Glucose, 2 ADP, 2 NAD+

Answer 519

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH

Answer 520

Converted to acetyl-CoA inside mitochondria; attaches to coenzyme A

Answer 521

2 acetyl-CoA, NAD+, FAD, ADP

Answer 522

6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2 ATP, 4 CO2

Answer 523

Complex II

Answer 524

Flavoproteins (FMN), Ubiquinone (CoQ), Metal-containing proteins (Cu/Fe/S), Cytochromes

Answer 525

Oxygen → forms H2O

Answer 526

Using H+ gradient to drive ATP synthesis

Answer 527

H+ flows through ATP synthase → rotor spins → ADP + Pi → ATP

Answer 528

~30–32 ATP per glucose

Answer 529

2 ATP per glucose

Answer 530

Incomplete oxidation; regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue

Answer 531

Acids or alcohols + CO2

Answer 532

Regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis

Answer 533

Fermentation producing organic acids (e.g., lactic acid)

Answer 534

Pyruvate → lactic acid only

Answer 535

Pyruvate → ethanol + CO2

Answer 536

Glycerol + fatty acids enter glycolysis/Krebs

Answer 537

Amino acids deaminated → enter Krebs

FINAL EXAM Flashcards

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