Naturalistic Observation
Studying the behaviors of people or animals as they act in their everyday environments
Participant Observation
The researcher will join a group being observed as one of the participants
Observation without Intervention
Describing behavior as it occurs, typically and examining relationships among variables
Helping establish the external validity of research findings
Used when ethical and moral considerations prevent experimental control.
Observation with Intervention
Most used observation in psychological research
3 Methods:
1. Participant Observation
2. Structured Observation
3. Field Experiments
Participant Observation
- Undisguised technique used to understand the culture and behavior of people
- Disguised technique is used when researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if they knew it was being recorded
- Allows researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually open to scientific observation
- Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity or may unduly influence the individuals whose behavior they are recording
Structured Observation
- Set up to record behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation
- Used often by clinical and developmental psychologists
- Problems in interpreting structured observations can occur when the same observation procedures are not followed across observations or observers, or when important variables are not controlled
Field Experiments
Researchers manipulate one or more independent variables in a natural setting to determine the effect of the behavior.
Direct Observation
- Observation without intervention
- Observation with intervention
Indirect Observations
(Unobtrusive, non-reactive observation)
1. Physical Traces
2. Archival Records
Physical Traces
Use Traces: Physical evidence that results from use (or nonuse) of an item. Ex….cans in a recycling bin, use of compost bins, pages colored in a coloring book
Products: Creations, constructions, or other artifacts of behavior. Ex….petroglyphs (ancient rock), MTV, Star Wars action figures
Archival Records
Running Records: Public and private documents that are produced continuously. Ex….records of sports teams, stock market prices
Records for specific episodes: Documents that describe specific events. Ex…birth certificates, marriage licenses, college degrees
Recording Behavior
How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed, and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded
Qualitative Records of Behavior
a.) Narrative records in the form of written descriptions of behavior, audiotapes, and videotapes are comprehensive records of observed behavior. E.g., labeling therapist responses by type.
b.) Researchers classify and organize data from narrative records to test their hypothesis about behavior
c.) Narrative records should be made during or soon after behavior is observed, and observers must be carefully trained to record behaviors according to established criteria.
Quantitative Measures of Behavior
a.) Researchers often obtain quantitative measures such as frequency or duration of occurrence when they seek to describe specific behaviors or events. E.g., frequency of a child yelling in a day.
b.) Rating scales, often used to measure psychological dimensions, are frequently treated as if they are interval scales even though they usually represent ordinal measurement.
c.) Electronic recording devices may be used in natural settings to record behavior, and pagers sometimes are used to signal participants to report their behavior (e.g., on a questionnaire).
Survey
Can be used to assess people’s thoughts, opinions, and feelings about a certain topic
Also, it can be used for market research:
a.) Collect demographic information
b.) Evaluate program effectiveness
c.) Monitor changes in a population or thoughts over time (e.g., in a way test, retest)
Survey Methods
- Through the mail (physical mail)
- Through email (most used method)
- Personal Interviews
- Telephone Interviews
Types of Survey Research Designs
- Cross-Sectional Design: One or more samples are drawn from the population(s) at one point in time.
- Successive Independent Samples Design: Different samples of respondents from the population complete the survey over a time period. Allows researchers to study changes in a population over time.
- Longitudinal Design: The same respondents are surveyed over time to examine changes in individual respondents.
Potential Problems in Survey Research
Ambiguity
Mutual Exclusivity
Non-exhaustive response set
Ambiguous terms
Rank Lists
Loaded Terms
Loading Questions
Unfamiliar terms and jargon
Requiring inaccessible information
Multidirectionality
Complexity and Memory Overload
Poor grammar in the survey
Hypothetical terms
Inappropriate assumptions
Mismatched item and response set
Survey Research Key Terms
Survey Instrumentation: Schedule of questions or response items to be posed to respondents
Items: individual survey questions or statements for which a response is solicited from the respondent
Interviews: face-to-face administration of a survey instrument
Questionnaire: Mail or other indirect methods of administration
Survey Order
Filler Items: Items which allow the elimination of unqualified respondents during post-processing (ex., respondents who lack the minimum information to respond intelligently)
Cross-check items: Internal check items that test consistency with other respondents.
Random Probe items: items of an open-ended nature are randomly interspersed by item and by survey so that any one respondent is only probed on a few items.
Pretesting or piloting the survey: Pretests invariably reveal item ambiguities and other sources of bias and error. Pretesting, or pilot testing, allows the survey measure to be refined before collecting the actual data.
Simple sample comparisons: After pretesting, if there is any remaining doubt about the reliability of one or more items, the researcher should consider split-sample comparisons, in which two versions of the same item appear on two different survey forms, administered randomly.
Reactivity: Survey research is reactive because respondents know their responses are being recorded. (Respond as they think they should rather than how they actually believe —> social desirability)
Response acquiescience: participants’ bias to agree with the statement
