Memory

Question 1

what is capacity?

Answer 1

The amount of information that can be held at any one time/ in a memory store;

Question 2

what is duration?

Answer 2

the length of time that memory store holds at any time;

Question 3

what is coding?

Answer 3

The format in which information is stored in the various memory stores.;

Question 4

Label the multi-store model of memory,

Question 5

what is the sensory register?

Answer 5

the memory stores for each of our 5 senses;

Question 6

what are the 2 main parts of sensory register/ memory?

Answer 6

iconic store - visual info - images echoic store - auditory info - sounds;

Question 7

what is the capacity, duration and coding of sensory memory?

Answer 7

cap: very large dur: limited cod: unprocessed;

Question 8

what is the capacity, duration and coding of short term memory?

Answer 8

cap: 7+/-2 items dur: 18 - 30s cod: acoustic;

Question 9

what is the capacity, duration and coding of long term memory?

Answer 9

cap: unlimited dur: lifetime cod: semantic (meaning);

Question 10

what are the key claims of the MSM?

Answer 10

1. STM and LTM are separate - one store can be damaged and other can’t 2. each store is unitary (single stores) 3. information flows in one direction (uni-directional);

Question 11

what study focuses on capacity and duration?

Answer 11

Sperling (1960) - Participants flashed with 3x4 grid of letters on screen for 50ms then asked to recall as many letters as they could remember - when asked to recall as many letters, they could only remember 4 when asked to recall a single row, they recalled 3 - capacity of SR is min 4 items + duration is between 250 to 500ms ( 1/2 or 1/4 of a second) + high control: lab experiment, standardised instructions, high internal validity - low ecological validity: not real life situation, difficult to generalise to how it works IRL, low external validity;

Question 12

what study was focused on capacity in STM?

Answer 12

Miller (1956) - digit span technique; participants hearing a list of numbers and immediately try recall them in correct order - span of STM is 7+/-2 digits, found that if people chunk informations together, they can remember more = cap of stm is 7+/-2 items + lab experiment = high control, control of EV variables, gives validity - individual diff of memory;

Question 13

What study was duration of STM?

Answer 13

Peterson and Peterson (1959) - 24 undergrad students presented with constant trigram, then told to count back from a given number in intervals of 3 (maintenance rehearsal blocked), then asked to recall the trigram - after 3s delay, 80% recall after 18s delay, 10% recall after 30s, no recall = durations of STM is 30s if maintenance rehearsal is blocked + lab experiment - high control over EV, high internal validity - low ecological validity - artificial task, doesn’t rep real life so can generalise to RL;

Question 14

what study focused on duration in LTM?

Answer 14

Bahrick et al (1975) - graduates from high school in american over 50 year period split into 2 groups 1. photo recognition group: given list of names and asked to match with person in photo 2. recall group: P asked to name people without being given a list of possible names - 1. Photo recognition - 15 Years - 90% correct 48 Years - 70% correct 2. Recall group - 15 Years - 60% correct 48 years - 30% correct Conc: duration of LTM can last a lifetime (atleast 48 years) + high ecological validity - uses meaningful stimulus material (High school), real life evidence to suggest duration of LTM is lifelong - low control over EV - participants couldve met up recently with old classmates when they left;

Question 15

what study focused on coding in STM and LTM?

Answer 15

Baddeley (1996) - 4 different conditions, semantically similar/dissimilar and acoustically similar/dissimilar, STM they can to recall the 10 words immediately in correct order, LTM they had to recall 10 words after 20 mins - LTM recall worse for semantically similar, STM recall worse for acoustically similar conc: coding in LTM is mainly semantic, coding in STM is acoustic + lab experiment, high control over EV, high internal validity - low ecological validity, artificial task - pop validity - only on british housewives;

Question 16

what study was the primacy/recency effect used as research to support the MSM?

Answer 16

Glanzer and Cunitz participants heard a long list of 30 words and then has to recall them in any order participants best recall was for first items (primacy effect) and last terms (recency effect) conc: primacy effect occurs bc p able to rehearse first few items on list and store in LTM, recency effect bc they’re still fresh in STM, therefore LTM and STM in different stores + claims STM and LTM are separate supported by research - primacy effect occurs bc p able to rehearse first few items on list and store in LTM, recency effect bc they’re still fresh in STM, therefore LTM and STM in different stores - flashbulb memory- overemphasised role of rehearsal;

Question 17

outline and evaluate the MSM model of memory,

Answer 17

outline: Info reaches our senses from environment and enters our memory systems through sensory memory;;

Question 18

what components are in the Working memory model?

Answer 18

central executive, phonological loop, episodic buffer, visuo-spatial sketchpad;

Question 19

describe central executive,

Answer 19

coordinates info to slave systems, involved with strategic planning cap: limited cod: modal free;

Question 20

describe phonological loop,

Answer 20

Deals with spoken and written material - responsible for verbal information - Phonological Store (inner ear) - Linked to speech perception - holds words you hear (i.e. spoken words) - Articulatory loop (inner voice) - Linked to speech production. Used to rehearse and store verbal information from the phonological store - maintenance rehearsal cap: limited, coding: acoustic;

Question 21

describe episodic buffer,

Answer 21

integrates info to LTM, backup store that allows for dual coding ( processing 2 pieces of information simultaneously (usually visual + auditory));

Question 22

describe the visuo-spatial sketchpad,

Answer 22

responsible for visual information - visuo cache (inner eye): Stores and processes information in a visual - colours - inner scribe allows for processing spatial awareness navigation;

Question 23

3 key assumptions of the WMM?

Answer 23

1. STM is not unitary (there are multiple stores) 2. Memory is more complex than the MSM suggests 3. We can process 2 different pieces of information simultaneously;

Question 24

an example of task completed by phonological loop,

Answer 24

talking/listening to music;

Question 25

an example of task completed by visuo-spatial sketchpad,

Answer 25

driving + watching TV;

Question 26

what research supports the WMM?

Answer 26

Baddeley; dual task studies, It is easier to do two tasks at the same time if they use different processing systems (verbal and visual) than if they use the same slave system. - participants could successfully track a spot of light (using VSS) and complete verbal task at same time (using PL) However, participants were less successful when asked to track the spot of light and describe letter F (both using VSS) conc: STM isn't unitary;

Question 27

what are the 3 types of LTM?

Answer 27

episodic, semantic, procedural;

Question 28

what is episodic memory?

Answer 28

personal memories of an event (bday), a type of explicit memory, usually includes details of an event, emotions associated - they're time stamped so you remember when they happened - they're a single episode; include several elements which make up the memory - less resistant to amnesia - stored in the hippocampus;

Question 29

what is procedural memory?

Answer 29

memory of how to do things (riding a bike), they require a lot of repetition and practice - their implicit meaning we find them very difficult to explain if we find the actions easy to perform, are automatic - they're memory of skills/abilities that we can do without conscious awareness - more resistant to amnesia - less likely to be forgotten - stored in cerebellum and motor cortex;

Question 30

what is semantic memory?

Answer 30

(explicit) memory for facts and general knowledge, usually starts as episodic but progressively loses association with particular events and only knowledge remains - not 'time-stamped' - dont remember when first learnt - less personal + more about facts - contains immense collection of material which is continually being added to - less resistant to amnesia - more likely to be forgotten;

Question 31

what type of memory is; a recent visit to dentist, concert you went to last week or psychology lesson yesterday?

Answer 31

episodic;

Question 32

what type of memory is; knowledge of justin bieber, taste of orange, or capital city of France?

Answer 32

semantic;

Question 33

what type of memory is; how to ride a bike/drive a car?

Answer 33

procedural;

Question 34

what study is for types of LTM?

Answer 34

Tulving six participants injected with radioactive gold, detected using a gamma ray detector. Participants thought about either semantic memories or episodic. Episodic memories were associated with the frontal lobes of the cortex, and semantic memories associated with the posterior region of the cortex - memory stores are separate;

Question 35

What is intereference theory?

Answer 35

forgetting because one memory blocks the recall of another, causing one or both memories to be forgotten degree of forgetting is greater when both memories are similar;

Question 36

what is proactive interference?

Answer 36

its when old information blocks recall of new information ex: forgetting new password but remembering old;

Question 37

what is retroactive interference?

Answer 37

when new information blocks recall of old information ex: teacher cant remember old students but can remember new;

Question 38

what supporting evidence is used for retroactive interference?

Answer 38

postman; lab experiment used, P split in 2 groups (A: had to learn another list of words, B: not given second list) results; recall of group B was more accurate than group A conc; learning new list interfered with recall of old list;

Question 39

what is supporting evidence for proactive interference?

Answer 39

Keppel & Underwood: P presented with trigrams, count in 3 intervals, recall then come later to learn new ones. results: P typically recalled first trigrams, poort at recalling new ones conc: PI - memory for earlier constants interfered with memory for new constant;

Question 40

what is retrieval failure theory?

Answer 40

forgetting is a result of insufficient cues ('triggers that help remember what you learnt, they must be present at time of encoding;

Question 41

what is context dependent forgetting?

Answer 41

relevant cues are in the environment (learning + recalling in same environment) - external;

Question 42

what is state dependent forgetting?

Answer 42

psychology or physical state at the time of encoding (being in same emotion/physical state when learning + recalling) - internal;

Question 43

what study is used for context dependent forgetting?

Answer 43

godden and baddley: divers learnt a list of words either on land or underwater, then recall on land or underwater, with matching or non-matching conditions results: accurate recall was 40% lower in non-matching conditions conc: external cues available at learning are different from ones at recall, leading to retrieval failure;

Question 44

what study is used for state-dependent forgetting?

Answer 44

Darley - participants smoked cannabis and then were asked to hide some money whilst high, then asked to find the money again some high. - people still under influence were more successful in finding money than those who weren't - this indicates that the state you're in at the time of coding needs to be similar to state you are in when recalling info;

Question 45

What is eyewitness testimony?

Answer 45

The ability of people to remember the details of events like accidents/crimes.;

Question 46

what factory's affect eye witness testimony?

Answer 46

misleading information and anxiety;

Question 47

What is misleading information?

Answer 47

Incorrect information given to the eyewitness usually after the event.;

Question 48

how does misleading information often take place?

Answer 48

leading questions and post event discussions;

Question 49

what key study is misleading information (leading questions)

Answer 49

Loftus and palmer - 45 participants shown several film accidents then were asked to answer the given questionnaire with the critical question (9 C.Q) - smashed (ES : 40.8Mph), contacted (ES: 31.8 Mph) - the form of questioning can have an effect on witnesses memory;

Question 50

evaluate misleading information key study (leading questions)

Answer 50

+ lab experiment - high control of EV, standardised, high internal validity + practical application = supports theory that MI reduces accuracy of EWT - low ecological validity- not realistic, they're not distressed = not valid support;

Question 51

What is post-event discussion?

Answer 51

More than one witness may discuss what they have seen. This may influence the accuracy of each witness's recall of the event.;

Question 52

what is the key study for misleading information (post-event discussion)

Answer 52

Gabbert et al - P watch a video of same crime but filmed from different POV, then asked to discuss video or not discussed - 71% of participants who has a discussion reported aspects of event didn't see in the video but picked from group, in control this figure was 0% - Witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval or bc they believe the other witnesses were right = memory conformity;

Question 53

evaluate misleading information key study (post event discussion)

Answer 53

+ lab experiment- high control, high internal validity + practical application - low ecological validity, P watching crumble video isn't how they would respond irl (less anxious, distressed) so can't be generalised to real life = L external validity;

Question 54

what is yerkes dodson law?

Answer 54

states that too much anxiety reduces accuracy of EWT, only a moderate level of anxiety is needed;

Question 55

summarise case study of Clive Wearing,

Answer 55

suffers from anterograde amnesia (cant create new memories) and retrograde amnesia (lost many old memories) he can: play piano, conduct choir, remember his wife, remember names of food cant: remember receiving music education, distinguish diff between taste of food, remember children names, remember he played piano when he stops + STM and LTM are separate; his STM lasts till 30s, shows its working, LTM is damaged bc he cant recall past events - claims that starts are unitary isnt supported by research, has lost some LTM but not others = not supporting model;

Question 56

what does the anxiety graph look like in terms of EWT and anxiety level

Answer 56

high/low anxiety = low EWT medium anxiety = high EWT;

Question 57

what is the weapon focus effect?

Answer 57

where people in high anxiety conditions focus more on the weapon instead of details of the criminal, so recall later on is very inaccurate;

Question 58

what is the supporting evidence for weapon focus effect?

Answer 58

Johnson and Scott - a man either walks in with a pen covered in grease (low anxiety condition) or a knife covered in blood (high anxiety condition) then the participants were asked to identify the man from photographs - findings supported WFE, accuracy for pen was 49%, accuracy for knife was 33% - WF leads to less accurate recall of person because of the anxiety that the witness experiences + lab experiment - high control, IV affects DV + practical application - criminal investigations - individual differences;

Question 59

what is contradictory evidences for leading questions & anxiety?

Answer 59

Yuille and Cutshall - 13 witnesses to an armed robbery in Canada interviewed, including 2 misleading questions but they had no effect on accuracy on EWT. In addition, most distressed witnesses (ex. suffered nightmares) gave more accurate EWT - shows LQ & A doesn't reduce EWT IRL - therefore findings of other studies which contradict this may not be valid;

Question 60

what is cognitive interview?

Answer 60

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories, info is organised in schemeas and LTM and looks at how schemas affect memory as well as cue dependent recall;

Question 61

what are the 4 key features of cognitive interview?

Answer 61

context reinstatement, report everything, recall in reverse order and

Question 62

cognitive interview

Answer 62

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate memories, info is organised in schemes and LTM and looks at how schemas affect memory as well as cue dependent recall.

Question 63

4 key features of cognitive interview

Answer 63

context reinstatement, report everything, recall in reverse order and recall from another person's perspective.

Question 64

context reinstatement

Answer 64

Trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions, and the individual's emotional state including their feelings at the time of the incident.

Question 65

report everything

Answer 65

Witnesses are encouraged to include every detail of the event, even if it seems irrelevant or the witness is not confident about it. Small details could be important and may trigger other memories/help recall significant info as they may act as retrieval cues.

Question 66

recall in reverse order

Answer 66

The witness is asked to describe the scene in a different chronological order e.g. from the end to the beginning. This prevents schemas (expect to happen) from reporting expectation vs reality, preventing dishonesty.

Question 67

recall from another person's perspective

Answer 67

Witness mentally recreates the situation from another person's POV. This disrupts the effect of expectations + schema on recall.

Question 68

evaluate cognitive interview

Answer 68

(+) Found effective Geiselman used and found that 12 more items of correct info than SI, showing it provides more accurate recall = validity (-) contradictory research Memon found CI produced as many correct answers as a SI (+) useful for interviewing older witnesses (-) CI is time consuming to conduct and takes much longer than a standard police interview; expensive - takes more time and training, is not a realistic method for police to use.