1
Q
what is content analysis?
A
A type of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly it turns qualitative data into quantitative data. The researcher uses coding units such as themes/categories and then counts the number of each category (produces quantitative data).
2
Q
what would the sample be?
A
the information that you’re analysing e.g. diary, interview tape, magazines, social media posts
3
Q
sampling methods example: If analysing the content of books does they look at…?
A
every page or just, say, every fifth page?
4
Q
sampling methods example: If comparing the content in various books…?
A
does the researcher select books randomly from a library or identify certain characteristics in advance (e.g. look at books that are biographies or romantic fiction?)
5
Q
what are the differences between content and thematic analysis?
A
- content analysis converts qualitative data into quantitative data whereas in thematic analysis, the data remains qualitative.
- content analysis focuses more on frequency of occurrence of data whereas thematic analysis is more concerned with identifying themes.
- content analysis, there’s a pre-established code and the psychologist is concerned with the frequency of those codes hence turning into data whereas in thematic analysis there are pre-established themes that came from the data.
6
Q
what are the steps in doing content analysis?
A
- read the data
- create codes based on what you’ve read
- create a table with these codes and tally up how many times they appear
- make an overall conclusion
7
Q
what does coding the data mean and what analysis is it used for?
A
when the researcher places qualitative data into categories, used for content analysis
Some data sets to be analysed may be extremely large and so there is a need to categorise this information into meaningful units- involves counting the number of times a word or phrase appears in the text to produce a form of quantitative data.
8
Q
what are the steps in doing thematic analysis?
A
- read the data
- write down a theme per sample
- identify overall themes
- make an overall conclusion
9
Q
what happens to data in thematic analysis?
A
it remains qualitative
10
Q
what happens to data in content analysis?
A
qualitative data turns into quantitative data
11
Q
Strengths of content and thematic analysis
A
- Such analysis is flexible = produces qualitative and quantitative data depending on the aims of the research.
- tends to have high ecological validity as it’s based on observations of what people actually do (e.g. real communications that are current and relevant, such as recent newspapers or the books that people read).
- When sources can be retained or accessed by others (e.g. back copies of magazines or videos of people giving speeches), the content or thematic analysis can be replicated and therefore the observations can be tested for reliability.
- There are no ethical issues normally associated with this type of psychological research. Much of the material that an analyst might want to study, such as TV adverts, films, personal ads in the newspaper or internet already exist within the public domain. As such, there are no issues with obtaining permission.
- Communication of a more sensitive nature such as a conversation by text, still has the benefit of being high in external validity, providing the ‘authors’ consent to its use.
12
Q
Limitations of content and thematic analysis
A
- Observer bias reduces the objectivity and validity of findings because different observers may interpret the meaning of the behavioural categories differently.
- People tend to be studied indirectly as part of content analysis so the communication they produce is usually analysed outside of the context within which it occurred. There is a danger that the researcher may attribute opinions and motivations to the speaker or writer that were not intended originally.
- Such analysis is likely to be culturally biased because interpretation of verbal or written content will be affected by the language and culture of the observer and the behavioural categories used.
- The main disadvantage of breaking behaviour down into categories is that it is arbitrary in that the researcher could be making artificial distinctions or could miss certain forms of behaviour. This reduces the validity of data collected by using content analysis.
13
Q
what are histograms?
A
a type of graph which shows frequency, but unlike a bar chart, the area of the bars represent frequency. The x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous.
14
Q
what type of data does histograms use?
A
continuous values can go anywhere along the x-axis
15
Q
what are some examples of continuous data?
A
age, time, years, scores of a test, weight, height
16
Q
what type of data does bar charts use?
A
non-continuous = discrete (nominal) data is in one group or the other
17
Q
Exam Tip: When drawing a graph or table you will receive marks for the following:
A
• Label each axis/column (if it is a table); • Include a title (A to show…); • Draw the graph/table accurately.
18
Q
what is a correlation?
A
A mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two variables, called co-variables.
19
Q
what can a correlation be?
A
positive or negative.
20
Q
how can you tell the strength of a correlation?
A
The closer the dots are to forming a diagonal line, the stronger the correlation.
21
Q
What is a correlation coefficient?
A
strength of the correlation [strong or weak]
22
Q
what is nominal data?
A
data in categories
23
Q
how is nominal data usually displayed?
A
in a bar chart
24
Q
what is ordinal data?
A
Data which is placed into numerical order. It doesn’t have a fixed unit of measurement/not standardised.
25
If there's a rating, then data is always...
ordinal
26
what is interval data?
[ordinal] data measured on a scale with equal, fixed sized intervals between values, where the units of measurements are recognised and standardised
27
what are some examples of interval data?
temperature, dates
28
what are the 3 basic questions I need to answer in order to determine which stats test to choose?
1. is the study looking at a difference [experiment - go to Q2] or a relationship [correlation- go to Q3]?
2. what type of experimental design is it using? [related - RM, unrelated - IG/MP]
3. what type of data did it generate? [nominal, ordinal, interval]
exam tip: need to justify for all 3
29
what is a related design?
all participants do all conditions = repeated measures
30
what is an unrelated design?
all participants do 1 condition = independent groups or matched pairs
31
association/relationship means its a...
correlation
32
if you're asked to 'justify' the choice of test, would should u include?
- state test of association or diff
- name the design + explain why it is this by providing evidence from the scenario.
- name level of measurements and why its important?
33
acronym for remembering the tests,
Research Methods Is Cool N, O, I[t's not] Super Sonic Cheese Cake Wont Wear Marks & Spencer's Roger Rabbit Uses Protection
34
evaluate nominal data?
(+) Easy to generate from closed questions - can generate a lot of data reasonably quickly
(-) Data is crude/ unsophisticated/ does not enable very sensitive analysis because it does not yield a numerical result for each participant
(-) Participants are unable to express different degrees to a response (e.g. the data may have been generated by a closed question)
35
evaluate ordinal data?
(+) Participants are able to express different degrees to a response therefore the data is more sensitive compared to nominal data (-) Data lacks precision because it is based on subjective opinion rather than objective measures (which interval data measures). Methods used that generate ordinal data include questionnaires or tests such as the IQ test which consist of questions that are believed to measure intelligence (subjective opinion).
36
evaluate interval data?
(+) More precise than nominal or ordinal data because it is based on numerical scales that include units of equal, precisely defined size. Interval data is the most precise and sophisticated form of data in psychology
37
what is probability
the likelihood that an event will occur where 0 indicates statistical impossibility and 1 statistical certainty.
38
what is the minimum P value we accept in Psychology?
0.05
39
what does a P value of 0.05 suggest?
- 95% likelihood that the IV affected the DV - 5% probability that the results were down the chance
40
what is significance?
statistical term that tells us how sure we are that a difference or correlation exists. A 'significant' result means that the researcher can reject the null hypothesis. To what extent were the results down to chance?
41
what are the 3 types of hypothesis?
one-tailed, two-tailed and null
42
what is a one-tailed hypothesis?
directional hypothesis - we have previous research to suggest the outcome of the study
43
what is a two-tailed hypothesis?
non-directional hypothesis - there's no previous research to suggest the outcome of the study
44
what is a stats test?
a way to analyses quantitative data to provide the researcher with a number (calculated value) which you compare against the critical value in the table
45
how to do a sign test steps
1. work out if test is one-tailed or two
2. take column A from B = A-B
3. add up how many +'s, -'s and ='s
4. work out S (calculated value = smallest of the +/ -
5. work out N (number of participants) any ='s, take off N)
6. work out the Critical value CV
7. work out if results are significant and write a conclusive paragraph
46
how to tell if the CV needs to be less than or greater than?
check if the stats test has an R in the word, if it does then its greater than.
47
what's the paragraph for results of significance?
useing these values: [calculated value = 4, CV =5, 4<5, N=18]
As the calculated value is [4], which is [less] than the critical value of [5], and N= [18] this suggests that our results are [significant] at a p = [0.05] level for a [one] tailed test, so therefore the [experimental] hypothesis should be accepted and the [null] should be rejected
48
what's the paragraph structure for results of significance?
As the calculated value is [], which is [] than the critical value of [], and N= [] this suggests that our results are [significant] at a p = [] level for a [] tailed test, so therefore the [] hypothesis should be accepted and the [] should be rejected
49
if the results are significant, what hypothesis do we accept and reject?
accept = experimental reject = null
50
if the results are not significant, what hypothesis do we accept and reject?
accept = null reject = experimental
51
why do psychologists use 5% significance level?
P=0.05 level is used because it strikes a balance between the risk of making a type 1 and type 2 error.
52
what is a type 1 error?
[false positive] where the results seem significant when they're actually not significant - the alternative hypothesis has been accepted, when its should've been rejected and the null hypothesis has been rejected when it should've been accepted (exam tip: every time a result comes back significant there's a possibility of type 1 error being made)
53
what is a type 2 error?
[false negative] where the results seem like they're not significant when they actually are significant - the null hypothesis has been accepted, when its should've been rejected and the alternative hypothesis has been rejected when it should've been accepted. (exam tip: every time a result comes back not significant there's a possibility of type 2 error being made)
54
why do type 1 errors occur?
when the P value has been set too high e.g. p=0.05 instead of p=0.01 - there's too much room for chance - test was too easy
55
why do type 2 errors occur?
probability was too stringent e.g. p=0.01 instead of p=0.05 - not enough room for chance
- sample size was too small and test was too hard
- type 2 errors occurs when the effect of the researcher was attempting to demonstrate does exist but the researcher claims there was no significance in the results/ accepts the null
56
how do we check for a type 1 error?
use a more stringent p value (shift 1 column to the right + check) if significant, type 1 error has likely occurred but if not then error hasn't occurred.
57
how do we check for a type 2 error?
use a less stringent p value (shift 1 column to the left + check) if still not significant, type 2 error has likely occurred but if it has then error hasn't occurred.
58
what are some examples of when a researcher would only use p=0.01,
when it is very important for their results to be highly accurate e.g.:
• When the findings are likely to be controversial or raise ethical dilemmas;
• When the hypothesis contradicts an established theory;
• When conducting a field/natural experiment which is not replicable;
• When not rejecting the alternative hypothesis could have very important effects/ implications e.g. accepting that a drug does not have side-effects when it does.
59
what are the things included in a scientific report?
Title Abstract Introduction method results discussion references appendix
60
what is the function of a title?
Tells the reader what the report is about
61
why is a title important
it will largely determine who chooses to read the full report. It should be concise yet informative. Anyone reading the title should know exactly what the report is about. The title should mirror the aim of the study and should begin with 'An investigation into...'
62
what is the function of an abstract?
To provide the reader with a brief summary of the study about things such as the Aim; Hypothesis; Sample; Procedure; Results; Conclusion. It should be around 150-200 words.
63
what's the abstract generally for?
psychologist who want to identify investigations that are worthy of further examination
64
what's the function of an introduction and what is it?
To introduce the background and rationale of the study. A literature review of the general area of investigation detailing relevant theories, concepts and studies that are related to the current study. It should begin broadly and gradually become more specific until the aims and hypotheses are presented.
65
what is the function of a method?
To describe how the study was done. Its split into sub-sections:
66
what are the sub-sections of methods?
- Design - Sample - apparatus - procedure - ethics
67
what's the function of results?
To summarise the key findings from the investigation and is likely to feature:
- descriptive stats, inferential stats, any qualitative data.
68
what are descriptive stats?
Tables, graphs and charts, measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion.
69
what are Inferential stats?
Should include reference to the choice of statistical test, calculated and critical values, the level of significance and the final outcome i.e. whether the null hypothesis is rejected or accepted.
70
what is Qualitative research?
If the researcher has used qualitative methods, categories and themes are described along with examples within these categories.
71
what's the function of a discussion?
A summary of the findings of the result.
What do my results mean compared to what was thought to happen?
• The implications of the research are discussed in the light of the information in the introduction e.g. does the current study support or refute the theories and/or studies discussed in the introduction.
• Discussion of any limitations in the investigation (particularly in relation to generalisation) and suggestions about how these could be addressed in a future study.
• Practical applications of the findings i.e. how the information gained can be used in the real world.
• A suggestion for future research that could be conducted to build on the conclusions derived.
72
what are the 2 types of referencing?
book and journal
73
what's the format for book referencing?
Name (surname followed by initials of first names), date, title, place of publishing, publisher.
74
example for book referencing
Flanagan, C. and Berry, D. (2016). A level Psychology. Cheltenham: Illuminate Publishing.
75
what's the format for journal referencing?
name, date, title of journal, volume number, issue number, page
76
example for journal referencing?
Gupta, S. (1991). Effects of time of day and personality on intelligence test scores. Personality and Individual Differences, 12 (11). 1227 - 1231.
77
what are journals?
where psychologists have done everything they've done in a book which may include volumes and issue numbers
78
what's the purpose of the appendix?
Can be used for detailed information not in the report.
Any raw data that was collected and calculations can, if appropriate, appear in the appendix.
79
what are the features of science?
- Objective
- Replicable
- Theory construction
- Based on empirical evidence
80
FOR THE PyscholoGY
falsifiability
objectivity
replicability
theory construction
hypothesis testing
empiricism
paradigm
generalisation
81
Empirical methods & empirical evidence
Information is gained through direct observation or experiment rather than from subjective beliefs or reasoned argument. Empirical evidence is directly observable by the senses and does not go beyond the boundaries of what can be observed. It can be verified by objective measurements using well-defined units.
82
Objectivity
Free from bias/preconceptions. An objective theory is based on observable phenomena (facts) rather than opinion, prejudice or emotion. It can be verified by empirical measurements. Objective knowledge is, therefore available to other scientists to check and verify (through replication).
83
To be objective researchers must:
• Operationalise variables;
• Base their research on existing robust theories (rather than gut instincts/personal opinion);
• Conduct the research using scientific methods e.g. lab experiment or controlled observation;
• Control Extraneous Variables (EVs).
84
Replicability & falsifiability
Replication refers to the extent to which the study can be repeated so that the reliability of results can be judged.
If a study is replicable different researchers can copy the original research using the exact same methods and procedures to see if results are same or similar (external reliability).
Replication is a valuable tool in the scientific method because it allows scientists to check findings and ensure they are robust.
Replication is particularly important in studies with small samples or samples from a very specific target population as replication on a larger sample will be used to check if findings apply outside this specific group.
85
To replicate a study, it must be:
• Highly controlled;
• Have operationalised variables.
86
what is falsifiability?
the ability to try and prove a theory wrong
87
what is a paradigm?
agreed upon set of theoretical assumptions about a subject and its method of enquiry
88
what are the 3 distinct stages of science?
- pre science: no paradigm exist, and there is much debate about what the subject is and its theoretical approach
- normal science: a generally accepted paradigm that can account for all the phenomena related to the subject and can explain and interpret all findings
- scientific revolution: evidence against the old paradigm reaches a certain point, and there's a paradigm shift. the old paradigm is replaced by a new one
89
what is a Paradigm shift?
An important change in the basic concepts and experimental practices of a scientific discipline. Its a change from one way of thinking to another.
90
Examples of paradigm shift:
-Copernicus in the sixteenth century overthrew the belief held for almost 2000 years that the earth was the centre of the universe.
-The change from a Newtonian paradigm in physics towards Einstein's theory of relativity.
91
what is a theory and what does it allow for?
general set of laws or principles that can explain particular events or behaviours. In scientific research, it allows for falsification of possible explanations for events/behaviours.
92
what is a hypothesis and what does it allow for?
testable statement that predicts the outcome of the study. It allows for a theory to be scientifically tested.
93
what should a scientific research always have
a testable hypothesis that can be rigorously tested
94
how does theory construction occur
through gathering evidence via direct observations
95
theory construction
To make scientific progress, theories must be continually constructed and tested so that new knowledge and understanding evolves.
96
In order to test theories and make scientific progress:
• Theory behind the study needs to be rigid;
• Hypotheses must be OPERATIONALISED (falsifiable/can be tested to be disproved);
• Methods must be replicable (and therefore standardised);
• It must be possible to test a theory empirically and objectively.
97
what is hypothesis testing?
a statistical method that uses sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a population
98
what's an example of something non- falsifiable in psychology?
Freud unconscious + conscious, ID, EGO, superego and defence mechanisms
99
what is empiricism?
the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience e.g. observations and experiments
- if its not empirical, its not scientific
- empirical methods must be objective
100
how does replicability explain features of science?
operationalisation of variables and using standardised methods so we can confirm validity and replicability of findings
101
what is generalisation?
the development of general principles and universal laws - usually associated with 'scientific' experiments, with large samples to establish how people are similar.
102
what must I ensure when writing a design a study answer?
1. answer all the bullet points in the question
2. use RM knowledge to explain HOW study will be conducted
3. use your RM knowledge to justify WHY you've chosen to do it that way
exam tip: keep it simple, always write a plan
103
deduction
then from confirmation, back to theory
104
induction
observation -> pattern -> tentative -> hypothesis -> (back to observation)
105
example used for falsifiability
Freud- unconscious/defence mechanisms/psychosexual stages
106
example used for objectivity
Skinners- rats experiment
107
example used for replicability
Ainsworth - Strange situation
108
example used for theory construction
Milgram Situational variables
109
example used for hypothesis testing
Milgram situational variables
110
example used for empiricism
Skinner - rats experiment
111
example used for generalisation
Ainsworth - attachment type
Psychology
flashcards
Decks in class (19)
# Cards
-
Cultural bias20
-
Gender bias19
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Free will - Determinism20
-
Nature vs Nurture10
-
Holism and Reductionist debate13
-
RM U6111
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RM 1&258
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RM 3&478
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RM 5&638
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cognitive approach3
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Attachments76
-
Social influence81
-
Memory68
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Biological treatments of schizophrenia7
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Relationship mark scheme12
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Relationship key definitions22
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Relationship supporting research20
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Para-social Relationships15
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Study names11
