1
Q
What are the functional divisions of the Nervous System?
A
-central NS
-peripheral NS
2
Q
What does the central NS contain?
A
Brain (Cerebrum, Diencephalon, Cerebellum, Brainstem)
Spinal cord
Cell types of the NS
3
Q
What does the peripheral NS contain?
A
Peripheral Nerves
Peripheral Nerve Injuries
4
Q
What is the role of the CNS?
A
Brain: receives sensory information, processes
sensory information, memory storage, emotion
Spinal cord: conduct signals to and from the brain,
control of reflexes
5
Q
What is the PNS?
A
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
System of nerves from 12 pairs cranial nerves
& 31 pairs spinal nerves
6
Q
Describe the Somatic Nervous System (SNS):
A
Somatic Nervous system: Voluntary
control of skeletal muscles
* Autonomic Nervous system (ANS):
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
Sensory + Motor function
7
Q
Describe the ANS:
A
- Autonomic Nervous system (ANS):
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems.
Effects automatic functions
8
Q
how is the PNS divided?
A
Into 3 diff parts - somatic nervous system, autonomic nervous system (ANS) and enteric nervous system (ENS), depending on function
9
Q
Describe the ENS:
A
Enteric Nervous System (ENS): Division of
PNS that innervates the digestive organs.
Regulates GI tract function
10
Q
What does the brain consist of?
A
- Cerebrum
- Diencephalon
- Cerebellum
- Brainstem
Cerebrum: Higher cognitive functions
Diencephalon: Relay centre
Cerebellum: Coordination
Brainstem: Automatic functions
11
Q
What is the cerebrum composed of?
A
2 cerebral hemispheres
Compromises gray matter
(cerebral cortex), white
matter at its center
12
Q
What is gray matter?
A
Cerebral cortex
13
Q
Function of cerebrum:
A
coordination of movement,
enables speech, thinking, emotions and learning,
vision, hearing touch and other senses
14
Q
Cerebellum function:
A
coordinate voluntary
muscle movement, posture and balance
15
Q
What is the brainstem composed of?
A
midbrain, pons, medulla.
16
Q
Brainstem function:
A
controls subconscious
body function (breathing,
maintaining heart rate)
17
Q
Label the brain anatomy (Lateral view):
A
-cerebrum (at top)
-cerebellum (at back bottom)
-brainstem (front bottom)
18
Q
Label the brain anatomy (Medial view):
A
-frontal lobe (top front)
-cerebral cortex (top back)
-corpus callosum (middle front)
-thalamus (middle front)
-hypothalamus (middle front)
-midbrain (middle front)
-pons (bottom front)
-medulla (bottom front)
-spinal cord (bottom front)
-cerebellum (very bottom front)
19
Q
What is the diencephalon composed of?
A
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
20
Q
What is the cerebrum composed of?
A
- Cerebral Cortex
- Longitudinal Fissure
- Corpus Callosum
21
Q
What is the cerebrum + where does it cover?
A
The cerebrum is a large component of
the CNS in humans, and the most obvious aspect of it is the folded surface called the cerebral cortex.
Cerebrum = The entire
brain including outer
cerebral cortex and deeper
structures underneath.
22
Q
What is the cerebral cortex?
A
Continuous layer of gray matter on the outside of the brain. Has many folds called
gyrus (a ridge) and sulcus (a groove) -> their pattern indicates specific regions of the cerebral cortex. Outermost layer of Cerebrum
23
Q
What is the longitudinal fissure?
A
Large space between the two sides of the cerebrum (left and right cerebral hemispheres)
24
Q
What is the corpus callosum?
A
a white matter tract for communication between the cerebral hemispheres
25
Label the cerebral cortex (lateral view) - top to bottom:
-cerebrum
-corpus callosum
-cerebral cortex
26
Label the cerebral cortex (Anterior view):
-longitudinal fissure (line through middle of brain, running vertically)
-right hemisphere
-left hemisphere
27
What is the outermost layer of cerebrum?
Cerebral Cortex
28
Label the cerebral cortex (lateral view):
-frontal lobe
-central sulcus
-parietal lobe
-lateral sulcus
-occipital lobe
-temporal lobe
29
Describe the cerebral cortex:
outermost layer of the Cerebrum
* Divide each hemisphere in 4 major lobes:
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
occipital lobe
temporal lobe
* uneven surface with many folds
Ridges = gyri
Valley or folds = sulci
30
How are the cerebral cortex hemispheres divided?
Divide each hemisphere in 4 major lobes:
frontal lobe
parietal lobe
occipital lobe
temporal lobe
31
What kind of surface does cerebral cortex have?
* uneven surface with many folds
Ridges = gyri
Valley or folds = sulci
32
What is the localisation of function?
Different cerebral cortex regions associated with particular
functions -> localization of function.
33
What are Brodmann's areas?
* Different cerebral cortex regions associated with particular
functions -> localization of function.
* Classification system known as Brodmann’s areas. Composed of:
-occipital lobe
-temporal lobe
-parietal lobe
-frontal lobe
34
What is the occipital lobe?
Primary visual perception
(Brodmanns’s Areas 17 and 18)
35
What is the temporal lobe?
Primary auditory sensation
(Brodmanns’s Areas 41 and 42). Also very important
role in memory.
36
What is the parietal lobe?
Somatosensation -> All general
body sensations + body position & movement.
37
What is the frontal lobe?
The Frontal lobe is associated with with the
following functions; Motor function; Broca’s
area (language and speech); Prefrontal cortex à
higher cognitive functions.
38
Which part of the brain has NB role in memory?
Temporal lobe
39
Which part of brain is associated with motor function?
Frontal lobe in cerebral cortex is associated with with the
following functions; Motor function; Broca’s
area
39
What is somatosensation + which part of brain controls it?
All general body sensations + body position & movement.
-controlled by parietal lobe in cerebral cortex
40
What does Broca's area control?
Speech and language
41
How is the cerebral cortex classified?
Different cerebral cortex regions
associated with particular functions
à localization of function.
* Classification system known
as Brodmann’s areas. Brodmann mapping of functionally distinct regions
of the cortex was based on its cytoarchitecture at a microscopic level.
42
Distinguish between Wernicke's area and Broca's area:
* Wernicke's area -> comprehension of
written and spoken language,
* Broca's area -> which is involved in the
production of language
43
Label Brodmann's cytotechtonic map (1909): Lateral surface:
-Areas 1, 2, 3: primary somatosensory cortex
-Area 4: primary motor cortex
-Areas 39, 40: Wernicke's area
-Areas 44, 45: Broca's area
-Area 17: primary visual cortex
-Area 22: Primary auditory cortex
44
Label Brodmann's cytotechtonic map (1909): Medial surface:
-Areas 1, 2, 3: primary somatosensory cortex
-Area 4: primary motor cortex
-Area 17: primary visual cortex
45
What is Broca's area + why is it named this?
-Named after Pierre Broca (1825-1880)
Broca’s area:
comprehension normal
problems language production
46
What is Broca's area part of?
Inferior frontal gyrus
47
Label brain with Broca and Wernicke's areas (basic diagram) - see canvas pp for diagrams + really detailed labelled diagrams of Broca and Wernicke's areas:
-primary motor cortex
-primary somatic sensory cortex
-Broca's area
-Wernicke's area
-primary visual cortex
-primary auditory cortex
48
What is Wernicke's area + why is it named this?
-Named after Karl Wernicke (1848-1905)
Wernicke’s area:
problems in the
comprehension of written
and spoken language
49
In Brodmann's classification system, what areas are Broca's and Wernicke's areas?
-Broca's area: areas 44, 45
-Wernicke's area: area 22
50
What is the cerebral cortex made up of?
sulci/gyri
51
Label the cerebral cortex - just sulci/gyri:
-gyrus (top middle)
-grey matter
-sulcus (bottom middle)
-white matter
52
Label the whole cerebral cortex with - sulci/gyri:
-frontal lobe
-precentral gyrus
-central sulcus
-postcentral gyrus
-parietal lobe
-parieto-occipital sulcus
-lateral sulcus
-occipital lobe
-temporal lobe
53
What influences the area available for cerebral functions?
Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex The cerebral
cortex is divided into four lobes. Extensive folding
increases the surface area available for cerebral
functions.
54
What are the boundaries of the cerebral cortex regions called?
Gyri/sulci
55
List the gyri/sulci:
-lateral sulcus
-parieto-occipital sulcus
-central sulcus
56
What is the lateral sulcus function?
separates the temporal lobe and the
parietal lobe.
57
What separates the temporal lobe and the parietal lobe?
Lateral sulcus
58
What is the function of the parieto-occipital sulcus?
separates the occipital lobe
and the parietal lobe
59
What is the function of the central sulcus?
separates the frontal & parietal lobes.
60
What separates the occipital lobe and the parietal lobe?
Parieto-occipital sulcus
61
What separates the frontal & parietal lobes?
Central sulcus
62
What are the deep nuclei found in the cerebrum called?
Subcortical nuclei -> collections of neurons in
gorups beneath the cerebral cortex.
* Function to augment/modulate cortical processes.
63
Label the frontal section of the cerebral cortex and basal nuclei:
-lateral ventricle
-corpus callosum
-globus pallidus
-striatum: caudate and putamen
64
What are the major components of the basal nuclei + where are they?
The major
components of the basal nuclei, shown in a
frontal section of the brain, are the caudate,
the putamen and the globus pallidus.
65
List the subcortical nuclei:
-hippocampus
-amygdala
-basal nuclei
66
What does the hippocampus do + where is it located?
deep in the cerebrum-> involved
in long-term Memory formation.
67
What does the amygdala do + where is it located?
deep in the cerebrum -> involved in
regulation of Emotion and emotional responses.
68
What do the basal nuclei do?
communicate with the cerebral
cortex -> influence the likelihood of movement.
69
What are the major structure of the basal nuclei that control movement + where are they located?
The major structures of the basal nuclei that control
movement are the caudate, putamen, and globus
pallidus -> located deep in the cerebrum.
70
What are subcortical nuclei + their functions?
Subcortical nuclei -> collections of neurons in
gorups beneath the cerebral cortex.
* Function to augment/modulate cortical processes.
71
Which parts of the frontal section of the cerebral cortex are included in the striatum?
striatum: caudate and putamen
72
What is the diencephalon?
is the connection between the
cerebrum and the rest of the nervous system.
73
What is the diencephalon involved in?
The spinal cord and PNS send information to
cerebrum through the diencephalon. Output from
the cerebrum passes through the diencephalon.
74
What are the regions of the diencephalon?
Two major regions:
Thalamus & Hypothalamus.
75
What does the thalamus do?
relay and processes information.
-All sensory information (except smell) passes
through thalamus then to cerebral cortex.
- Cerebrum sends information to the thalamus à
usually communicates motor commands.
- Extensive connections with many deep nuclei and
other brain regions
76
What sensory information does not pass through thalamus to cereal cortex?
smell - every other sense passes through here on way to cerebral cortex
77
What does the hypothalamus do?
regulates homeostasis.
- Controls autonomic nervous and endocrine systems.
- Also role in memory and emotion in limbic system.
78
What are the thalami?
The thalami are two elongated, ovoid structures on
either side of the midline that make contact in the
middle.
79
Where is the hypothalamus located in relation to the thalamus?
The hypothalamus is inferior and anterior
to the thalamus, culminating in a sharp angle to
which the pituitary gland is attached.
80
Label the diencephalon:
-thalamus
-hypothalamus
-pituitary gland
81
What does the brain stem consist of?
The brain stem comprises three regions: the
Midbrain, the Pons, and the Medulla, which continues to spinal cord.
82
What is the function of the midbrain?
coordinates sensory representations of the
visual, auditory, and somatosensory perceptual
spaces. Also important roles in movement.
83
What is the pons?
main connection with the cerebellum.
84
What do the pons and the medulla do?
The Pons and the Medulla regulate several crucial
functions, including the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems and rates.
85
How are the cardiovascular and respiratory systems/rates regulated?
The Pons and the Medulla regulate several crucial
functions, including the cardiovascular and
respiratory systems and rates.
86
What connects through the brain stem + why?
12 pairs of Cranial Nerves connect through the
brain stem to provide sensory and motor functions
for structures in head and neck.
87
Label the brain stem:
-midbrain
-pons
-medulla
88
What is the cerebellum + where is it located?
Cerebellum or ‘little brain’ is located on the
posterior side of the brain, inferior to cerebrum. Compares information from cerebrum with sensory
feedback from the periphery from spinal cord.
89
Cerebellum function:
Compares information from cerebrum with sensory
feedback from the periphery from spinal cord
90
What does cerebellum have a major role in?
coordination
91
What kinds of info go into cerebellum?
motor info
sensory info
92
How does motor info go through cerebellum?
Motor information from the cerebrum copied to
neurons in the pons which project into the cerebellum.
93
How does sensory info go through cerebellum?
Sensory information copied to neurons in inferior olive
in medulla which project into the cerebellum
94
Where does cerebellum output go?
To the midbrain
95
Where is the cerebellum located?
on the posterior
surface of the brain stem.
96
What happens info coming from the cerebellum?
Cerebellum output goes to the midbrain.
- Midbrain sends a descending input to the spinal
cord to correct the messages to skeletal muscles.
97
Label the cerebellum:
-cerebellum
-pons
-deep cerebellar white matter (arbor vitae)
-inferior olive
98
Why is the name for deep cerebellar white matter?
Arbor vitae
99
Label the brain (with gray and white matter):
-ascending/descending tracts
-cerebral hemisphere
-gray matter
-white matter
-brainstem
100
Label the spinal cord (with gray and white matter):
-gray matter
-white matter
101
Distinguish between gray and white matter:
Gray Matter: Contains neuron cell bodies
White Matter: Contains axons organised into
ascending and descending tracts
102
What is the body's most complex organ?
Brain
103
What are the cell types of the nervous system?
-neurons
-synpases
-neuronal network
104
Explain the relationship in the brain between neurons, synapses and neuronal network:
The human brain has 86 billion neurons, each neuron
connected to 10 thousand other neurons via synapses
forming a vast neuronal network
105
What is a neuron?
The Neuron is the functional unit of the nervous
system.
106
What does the neuron cell body contain?
Nucleus
107
What do dendrites do in a neuron?
(receive):
Carry nerve impulses toward cell body. Receive stimuli
from sensory receptors or other neurons
108
What do axons do in a neuron?
- Carry nerve impulses away from the cell bodies.
- Axons interact with muscle, glands, or other neurons
109
What are axons known as?
Conducting fibres
110
How is the neuromuscular junction formed?
In the PNS (periperal nerve system) these (parts of a neuron: cell body, dendrites, axons, axon terminals, synaptic bulbs), together with the muscle, form the
neuromuscular junction
111
Name the parts of a neuron:
-cell body
-dendrites
-axons
-axon terminals
-synaptic bulbs
-neuromuscular junction
112
Label the basic structure of a neuron (!) - this is a multipolar neuron from the CNS (good eg of a motor neuron):
-cell body (soma)
-cell membrane
-dendrites
-axon
-oligodendrocyte
-node of Ranvier
-myelin sheath
-synapse
113
What is the name for the cell body in a neuron?
Soma
114
What are the support cell types of the nervous system?
CNS glia
PNS glia
115
List the CNS glia + give their function:
Astrocyte = Support
Oligodendrocyte =Insulation, myelination
Microglia = Immune surveillance
& phagocytosis
Ependymal cell = Creating CSF
116
List the PNS glia + give their function:
Satellite cell =support
Schwann cell = insulation, myelination
117
What kinds of cells doe the PNS have?
The PNS has satellite cells and Schwann cells.
118
Label the PNS:
-peripheral galionic neuron cell body (unipolar cell)
-satellite cells
-schwann cells
-axon
119
What kinds of cells does the CNS have + what do they do generally?
The CNS has astrocytes, oligodendrocytes,
microglia, and ependymal cells that support the
neurons of the CNS in several ways.
120
Label the CNS:
-microglial cell
-astrocyte
-oligodendrocytes
-ependymal cells
121
What does the spinal cor do?
Sensory info comes from here & it sends motor information to peripheral structures.
122
Label the spinal cord:
-white matter: posterior (dorsal) columns
-gray matter: posterior (dorsal) horn
-lateral columns
-lateral horn
-central canal
-anterior (ventral) horn (one either side)
-anterior (ventral) columns
123
What are the parts of he spinal cord (horns)?
* Posterior (Doral) horn
* Anterior (Ventral) horn
124
What does the posterior horn do + its alternative name?
* Posterior (Doral) horn: sensory processing.
125
What does the anterior horn do + its alternative name?
* Anterior (Ventral) horn: sends out motor signals to
skeletal muscles.
126
Where are motor neurons located?
Multiploar motor neurons are located in the ventral
horn.
127
What are motor neurons responsible for + how is this facilitated?
Multiploar motor neurons are responsible for skeletal muscle contraction.
* Their axons leave the spinal cord in the ventral roots to
form spinal nerves which run to the skeletal muscles.
128
How are gray and white matter divided?
gray matter= poster, anterior and lateral horns
white matter=posteior, anterior and lateral columns
129
What does a cross section of a thoracic spinal cord segment show under microscope?
shows the posterior, anterior, and lateral horns of gray matter, as well as the
posterior, anterior, and lateral columns of white matter. LM × 40
130
What is a peripheral nerve?
Describes all nerves and branches that lie outside the CNS;
- Principal route for PNS-CNS-PNS communication.
131
What is the spinal segment?
Area of cord that gives rise to
posterior and anterior rootlets which form a single pair
of spinal nerves
132
What do rootlets do?
Join to form nerve roots:
1) Anterior root
2) Posterior root
133
Label the body (peripheral and spinal nerves):
-Brain
-cranial nerve
-spinal cord
-brachial plexus
-spinal nerve
-lumbar plexus
-peripheral nerve
134
Label two spinal segments:
-posterior root
-spinal ganglion
-spinal nerve
-anterior root
-somatic motor nerve fiber
-posterior tootles
-anterior/ventral root
-posterior/dorsal root??
135
Label a cross section of the body (with the roots):
-dorsal root ganglion
-spinal nerve (union of dorsal and ventral roots)
-dorsal ramus (bends posteriorly to skin and muscles of back)
-ventral ramus (projects laterally to body wall and limbs)
-rami communicantes (bends anteriorly to visceral organs; thoracic region only)
-spinal nerve branches (contains the dorsal ramus, ventral ramus and rami communicantes)
136
What is the anterior/ventral root?
Contains motor nerve fibres/axons (efferent)-> carrying signals away from the CNS
137
What is the posterior/dorsal root?
Contains sensory nerve fibres/axons (afferent)
->carrying signals to the CNS
138
What are dermatomes?
Area of skin mainly innervated by sensory
fibres of a single spinal nerve.
139
What are dermatome symptoms? - list areas affected on the hand:
-Symptoms “follow” a dermatome e.g. pain or a rash
-C8 (Baby finger), C7 (index finger) and C6 (thumb) are affected
140
What is a peripheral nerve?
bundle within a bundle arrangement.
Nerve is made up of smaller bundles known as fascicles.
141
What is a fascicle?
Fascicles are actually bundles of individual axons.
142
What is epinerium?
connective tissue sheath surrounding
entire nerve
143
What is perineurium?
connective tissue sheath surrounding
fascicles.
144
What is endoneurium?
connective tissue sheath surrounding
individual nerve fibres.
145
List the parts that make up the organisation of a peripheral nerve:
-peripheral nerve
-fascicle
-epinerium
-perineurium
-endoneurium
146
Label the peripheral nerve:
-spinal nerve
-epineurium
-blood vessels
-fascicle
-perineurium
-endoneurium
-perineurium
-axion
147
What is the structure of a nerve?
The structure of a nerve is organized
by the layers of connective tissue on the outside, around each
fascicle, and surrounding the individual nerve fibers (tissue source:
simian)
148
Label a peripheral nerve as viewed under a microscope:
-perineurium
-epineurium
-fascicles
149
Hoe many nerve plexuses does the body have?
4: 2 cervical level, 1 lumbar, 1 sacral level.
150
List the nerve plexuses:
-cervical plexus (C1-C5)
-brachial plexus (C4-T1)
-lumbar plexus (L1-L5)
-sacral plexus (L4 - L5 + S1-S4)
151
What is the cevical plexus?
(C1 - C5) -> major nerve is phrenic nerve -> connects to
the diaphragm at the base of the thoracic cavity.
152
What is the brachial plexus?
(C4 - T1) -> 5 major nerves = Radial, Median, Ulnar,
Axillary and Musculocutaneous nerves.
153
What is the lumbar plexus?
(L1 – L5) -> major nerve is femoral nerve -> continues on
into the leg.
154
What is the sacral plexus?
(L4 to L5 + S1 to S4) -> major nerve is the sciatic nerve, ->
continues on to tibial nerve and the fibular nerve in leg.
155
What is the major nerve of the cervical plexus?
major nerve is phrenic nerve -> connects to
the diaphragm at the base of the thoracic cavity.
156
What is the major nerve of the lumbar plexus?
major nerve is femoral nerve -> continues on
into the leg.
157
What is the major nerve of the sacral plexus + where does it continue on to?
major nerve is the sciatic nerve, ->
continues on to tibial nerve and the fibular nerve in leg.
158
What are the major nerve of the brachial plexus?
major nerves = Radial, Median, Ulnar,
Axillary and Musculocutaneous nerves.
159
Where does the cervical plexus supply nerves to?
The cervical plexus supplies nerves to the
posterior head and neck, as well as to the diaphragm.
160
Where does the brachial plexus supply nerves to?
The brachial plexus
supplies nerves to the arm.
161
Where does the lumbar plexus supply nerves to?
The lumbar plexus supplies nerves to the
anterior leg.
162
Where does the sacral plexus supply nerves to?
The sacral plexus supplies nerves to the posterior leg.
163
What are PNI's?
Peripheral nerve injuries
164
How many basic types of PNI's are commonly seen?
3 basic types commonly seen.
165
List the common PNI's:
-stretch - related
-lacerations
-compression
166
What is a stretch related PNI?
The peripheral nerves are elastic, but when a traction force is too strong injury occurs.
If the traction force is strong enough, a complete tear may occur, but usually continuity is retained.
167
What is a laceration PNI?
Another common type of PNI are lacerations created by blades. those types of injuries might be complete transections- but most commonly some continuity remains.
168
What is a compression PNI?
The third type of PNI are compression. These injuries include the Saturday
Night palsy due to radial nerve compression as well as entrapment neuropathies and do
not involve tearing of the neural elements
169
Label the stretch-related PNI:
-stretch
170
Label the laceration PNI:
-nerve cut
-laceration
171
Label the compression PNI:
-compression
172
What are the common classifications for PNI?
-2 common classifications: Seddon classification and Sunderland classification.
173
What is neurapraxia (seddon)?
Process: local myelin damage usually secondary to compression
Sunderland: first degree
174
What is axonotmesis (seddon)?
Process: axon severed but endoneurium intact (optimal circumstances for regeneration)
Sunderland: second degree
175
What is axonotmesis (seddon)?
Process: axon discontinuity, endometrial tube discontinuity, perineurium and fascicular arrangement preserved.
Sunderland: Third degree
176
What is axonotmesis (seddon)?
Process: loss of continuity of axons, endoneurial tubes, perineurium and fascicle; epineurium intact
Sunderland: fourth degree
177
What is neurotmesis (seddon)?
Process: complete physiologic disruption of entire nerve trunk
Sunderland: fifth degree
178
Label the nerve plexuses of the body:
-cervical plexus (C1-C5)
-phrenic nerve
-brahcial plexus (C4-T1)
-axillary nerve
-median nerve
-radial nerve
-ulnar nerve
-lumbar plexus (L1-L5)
-fermoral nerve
-obturator nerve
-sacral plexus (L4 to L5 + S1 to S4)
-common fibular nerve
-tibial nerve
-sciatic nerve
179
What is neuropraxia?
mildest form of nerve injury. Temporary conduction block of motor or sensory function
without nerve degeneration, although loss of motor function is the most common finding (pins and needles!)
180
What is the mildest form of nerve injury?
Neuropraxia - pins and needles
181
Which nerve injury involves temporary conduction block of mort or sensory function?
Neuropraxia - this block = pins and needles
182
What is axonotmesis?
the distal axon undergo degeneration, but the endoneurium tubes remain open and intact
and so regeneration is possible.
183
What is neurotmesis?
serious nerve injury. Both the nerve and connective tissues are disrupted. Partial recovery
may occur à complete recovery is impossible.
184
For which nerve injury is complete recovery impossible?
Neurotmesis
185
Label a normal nerve:
-epineurium
-endoneurium
-axon
-myelin sheath
186
What is the spinal nerve a union of?
Dorsal and ventral roots
187
How does the dorsal ramus bend (in cross section of body)?
bends posteriorly to skin and muscles of back
188
What does the ventral ramus do in cross section of body?
projects laterally to body wall and limbs
189
What does rami communicantes do in cross section of body?
bends anteriorly to visceral organs; thoracic region only
190
What are spinal nerve branches made up of?
The dorsal ramus, ventral ramus and rami communicantes.
Anatomy
flashcards
Decks in class (20)
# Cards
-
Anatomical Terminology146
-
Bone61
-
Cartilage38
-
Spinal Cord80
-
Joints72
-
Respiratory Muscles & Breathing131
-
Respiratory & Abdominal Viscera163
-
The Trunk: Vertebral Column64
-
Nervous System191
-
Pharynx & Larynx188
-
Skull: Facial Bones81
-
Nasal Cavity:33
-
Skull - Cranial Bones:63
-
Muscles of Facial Expression40
-
Muscles of Mastication50
-
Oral Cavity & Tongue:72
-
Outer and Middle Ear:62
-
Dentition55
-
Inner Ear80
-
Eye14
