Chapter 10 - Visual Imagery

Question 1

How do we define mental imagery?

Answer 1

Our ability to mentally recreate perceptual experience in the absence of a sensory stimulus.

Question 2

What are the four types of imagery?

Answer 2

1. Visual Imagery
2. Auditory Imagery
3. Tactile Imagery
4. Olfactory Imagery

Question 3

What is the phenomenon of novel mental imagery/perception?

Answer 3

We are able to sense or create mental images of stimuli that we have never experienced. The ability to represent novel perceptual experiences.

Question 4

What is the Dual-Coding Theory?

Answer 4

The idea that human knowledge is represented into two separate imagery systems. Non-verbal, and verbal.

Question 5

What is the non-verbal imagery system in Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory?

Answer 5

A modality-specific system based on sensory-motor information and image systems. Images resemble what they stand for, and we maintain the perceptual features of the stimulus they represent.

Question 6

What is the verbal imagery system in Paivio’s Dual-Coding Theory?

Answer 6

An abstract, symbolic system (language system). How we assign verbal words to concepts, and think according to our meaning of those words.

Question 7

What is Kosslyn’s format of mental imagery?

Answer 7

That images are depictive representations. Analog codes that maintain perceptual and spatial characteristics of objects.

Question 8

What is Pylyshyn’s format of mental imagery?

Answer 8

That images are descriptive representations. Symbolic codes that convey abstract conceptual information and do not resemble the real world.

Question 9

What is the difference between depictive and descriptive representations?

Answer 9

Depictive representations preserve perceptual and spatial information.

Descriptive does NOT preserve perceptual and spatial information, it only keeps conceptual information. Images as epiphenomenon.

Question 10

What are epiphenomenon?

Answer 10

By-products of more fundamental cognitive processes.

Ex. The by-product of heat a computer creates the longer you work.

Question 11

What are examples of depictive representation, verbal representation, and propositional representation? Use the example of a toaster to the right from an oven.

Answer 11

Depictive representation: An image of the toaster to the right from an oven.

Verbal representation: “The toaster is right of the stove.”

Propositional representation: Right (toaster, stove)

Question 12

What are traits of Pylyshyn’s descriptive processing perspective?

Answer 12

Cognitive processing relies on propositions, or the manipulating of cognitive symbols. They…
- Can be verified as true or false
- Used to describe the relationship between items
- Propositional codes the only requirement for thought
- No need for theories about imagery

Question 13

What is the debate between depictive and descriptive imagery?

Answer 13

Depictive: If they maintain perceptual and spatial characteristics, people should process images and physical stimuli similarly.

Descriptive: Mental processing would depend on the number of propositions instead of perceptual & spatial characteristics of stimuli.

Question 14

What is Kosslyn’s question of mental scanning?

Answer 14

Do mental images maintain the spatial characteristics of physical stimuli?
If visual images are analog codes of physical stimuli:
- It should take more time to travel longer physical distances than shorter ones.
- It should take longer to process larger mental distances than shorter distances.

Question 15

What is Kosslyn’s mental scanning idea?

Answer 15

Mental scanning supports the theory of depictive representations as it takes a participant a longer amount of time to travel further when accessing a mental image. They maintain the spatial arrangements of physical objects.

An alternate explanation is that participants stored information as a list of features, and were searching through that list opposed to seeing that image.

Question 16

What is the theoretical framework of mental rotation?

Answer 16

If mental rotation is similar to the rotation of real objects, then it will take individuals longer to mentally rotate a greater angular distance compared to a smaller angular distance.

Question 17

What was Shepard and Metzler’s (1971) experiment on mental rotation?

Answer 17

They investigated the time it took for individuals to rotate mental images of abstract figures.

Question 18

What did Shepard and Metzler’s (1971) experiment on mental rotation conclude?

Answer 18

Results demonstrated a linear relationship between the amount of rotation of one of the shapes and reaction time for participants to identify whether the shapes were the same or different.

Participants could mentally rotate the objects at a rate of 60 degrees per second.

Question 19

What does mental scaling depend on?

Answer 19

The size of the object.
The distance from the viewer.

Question 20

What was Kosslyn’s (1975, 1978) experiment on mental scaling?

Answer 20

Participants had to imagine a cat next to an elephant, then had to determine whether the cat had claws or not. Participants had to mentally “zoom in” to determine this based on the size of each.

Question 21

What did Kosslyn determine from the mental scaling experiments?

Answer 21

Reaction times depended on the relative size of the animal, and that imaginary objects could be processed similarly to real objects.

Objects that were imagined at unrealistic relative proportions took longer.

Question 22

What were the results of Segal & Fusella’s (1970) study on imagery and perception?

Answer 22

If imagery uses up the same mechanisms as perception, imagining a visual stimulus would occupy the same resources, decreasing detection performance.

However stimuli from other senses could still be detected (if a visual stimulus was imagined, a sound could still be easily detected).

Question 23

What was Farah’s (1985) study on imagery and perception using letters?

Answer 23

Participants were shown the faint letters T or H, and were instructed to create a visual image of either letter while also detecting the projected letter.

It determined that presenting congruent stimuli enhanced detection performance.

Question 24

What are motion aftereffects?

Answer 24

Illusory visual effects that occur after prolonged viewing of a stimulus.

Question 25

When do motion aftereffects occur?

Answer 25

- Result from activity of cells in the visual system - Occurs after viewing continuous motion in one direction over a long period - When a viewer looks away, the opposite direction of motion is detected

Question 26

What are two arguments against depictive representations?

Answer 26

Experimenter expectancy Demand characteristics

Question 27

What is experimenter expectancy as an argument against depictive representations?

Answer 27

Researchers inadvertently convey the anticipated results of the experiment to participants, altering behaviour.

Question 28

What are demand characteristics as an argument against depictive representations?

Answer 28

Participants form an interpretation of the researcher’s purpose and subconsciously change their behaviour.

Question 29

What are the roles of PET (positron emission tomography) and fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) in brain and imagery?

Answer 29

They compare activity in intact brains during mental imagery/perception tasks. For patients with localized deficits, we can infer the damaged area is involved in a given cognitive process.

Question 30

What is the discovered relationship between perception and imagery?

Answer 30

Neuroimaging results tend to support shared mechanisms between perception and imagery even if they are not exactly the same.

Question 31

What distinguishes memory and perception?

Answer 31

Perception: higher-level brain areas (PFC) send top-down signals to perceptual processing areas. Imagery: a re-enacted perceptual experience where the same neurons are activated by frontal brain areas instead of a stimulus.

Question 32

What are generative adversarial networks (GNAs)?

Answer 32

Artificial neural nets (ANNs) that work by putting two ANNs in competition with each other.

Question 33

How do GNAs work?

Answer 33

1. Generator network is trained to generate new images by recognizing and reproducing presented images. 2. Discriminator network is created using pattern recognition to try and discriminate between original and newly created images. 3. The two networks work in competition. Generator network produces better images while the discriminator network improves discrimination abilities.

Question 34

What are deepfakes?

Answer 34

Videos generated using ANNs and GNAs to impersonate people.

Question 35

What do most researchers agree on about imagery?

Answer 35

That imagery is: - Stored as abstract proposition - Arises from similar brain mechanisms as perception

Question 36

What is the picture superiority effect?

Answer 36

The cognitive phenomenon where people remember pictures more easily than words.

Question 37

What is the concreteness effect?

Answer 37

Concrete words are remembered better than abstract words. Concrete words are easier to imagine and more likely to spontaneous create visual images while abstract words are harder to visualize so we rely on one verbal code.

Question 38

What is the relationship between imagery and PTSD?

Answer 38

Negative intrusive imagery is a characteristic trait of individuals with PTSD. Re-experiencing traumatic events involves involuntary and unwanted memories. People will respond as if they are re-experiencing the event.

Question 39

What are anxiety disorders?

Answer 39

Intense, persistent, and excessive worrying that interferes with daily life. Associated with an increase of negative imagery of future events which they believe can happen, exacerbating anxiety.

Question 40

What are depressive disorders?

Answer 40

Persistent feelings of sadness frequently accompanied by a loss of interest. - Associated with an increase of negative imagery, specifically suicidal ideation. - Also associated with a decrease in positive imagery.

Question 41

What is imagery rescripting?

Answer 41

A technique to help treat mental disorders linked to abnormal mental imagery. - Patients are guided through memories of past negative events. - Instructed to imagine themselves acting the way they wish they could have during the event. Goal: replace negative memories with positive ones

Question 42

What is a self report as a method of measuring mental imagery?

Answer 42

Asking people to write or explain their imagery experiences.

Question 43

What is an objective performance task as a method of measuring mental imagery (example)?

Answer 43

The paper folding test. Participants view diagrams of paper being folded and hold punched. Participants must mentally unfold the paper and identify the placement of the holes.

Question 44

What is hyperphantasia?

Answer 44

It effects those who experience extremely vivid visual imagery.

Question 45

What is Chapter 10, summarized?

Answer 45

- Dual coding theory: thought can be represented either through a verbal abstract system, or a nonverbal analog system - Imagery debate - Evidence supporting depictive representations: mental scanning, mental rotation, mental scaling - Imagery affects cognition and behaviours: picture superiority effect, the concreteness effect (dual-coding processes) - Mental imagery affects (affected by) mental health disorders - People vary in their ability to form mental images