Chapter 7 - Long Term Memory

Question 1

What are the qualities of long-term memory?

Answer 1

It is the last stage in the modal model of memory. It:
- Retains abstracted semantic information
- The information may be kept indefinitely
- Information needs to be retrievable

Question 2

What is amnesia?

Answer 2

Severely impaired long-term memory due to brain trauma.

Question 3

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 3

Difficulty remembering events that occurred leading up to the event.

Question 4

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 4

Difficulty remembering any new information they encounter.

Question 5

What is the case of Clive Wearing?

Answer 5

An ex-concert pianist and musicologist who suffered retrograde and anterograde amnesia. Could not remember names of his children or life events and could not form memories, but did remember language, how to play the piano, and world facts.
He had intact short term memory which allowed him to remember things that took place moments ago, but this information quickly disappeared.

Question 6

What is double dissociation?

Answer 6

A phenomenon used to demonstrate that two cognitive functions are independent by showing two separate cases of brain damage.

Question 7

What information enters LTM?

Answer 7

Information along as it is rehearsed. There is maintenance rehearsal, or elaborative rehearsal which is more effective.

Question 8

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Answer 8

Repeating information without any additional thought about it.

Question 9

What is elaborative rehearsal

Answer 9

Repeating information while considering the meaning.

Question 10

What is serial position effect?

Answer 10

When given a long string of numbers or units to repeat, the recall performance is u-shaped under effect of the primacy and recency effects.

Question 11

What is the recency effect?

Answer 11

The tendency to remember information presented at the end of a sequence (likely STM).

Question 12

What is the primacy effect?

Answer 12

The tendency to remember information presented earlier in a sequence. Words at the beginning have the chance to be rehearsed, moving the information into the LTM.

Question 13

What are the levels of processing theory (Craik & Tulving, 1972)?

Answer 13

The more deeply people processed a word, the better they remembered it.

Question 14

What three stages are there in memory?

Answer 14

1. Encoding
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
   (Information must be retrieved before it can be considered truly remembered.)

Question 15

What are memory retrieval cues?

Answer 15

Similar to search terms in a search engine. Something you are familiar with from everyday life that can help you retrieve information stored in LTM.

Question 16

What did Morris (1997) theorize about transfer-appropriate processing?

Answer 16

Retrieval can be the critical factor in what is remembered, perhaps more important than depth of initial encoding. They were given a free-recall task and a cued-recall task.
How well something was remembered depends on:
1. How well it was encoded
2. How well a later memory cue matches the way it was encoded

Question 17

What was found in Tulving & Pearlstone’s (1966) research?

Answer 17

Participants performed much better on the recall task condition when asked to retrieve words in cued lists compared to free recall.

Question 18

What is encoding specificity?

Answer 18

Any cue associated with encoding can help facilitate later retrieval (context dependent).

Question 19

What is context-dependent memory?

Answer 19

Memory is improved when we have consistent environments at the time of encoding and retrieval.

Question 20

What is state-dependent memory?

Answer 20

Memory is improved hen we have consistent internal states and moods at the time of encoding and retrieval.

Question 21

What is the spacing effect?

Answer 21

Recall is higher when information is repeated over multiple spaced out periods.

Question 22

What is the testing effect in long term memory?

Answer 22

Information is better remembered if the individual has to retrieve it on their own, rather than being passively exposed to it.

Question 23

What is explicit/declarative memory?

Answer 23

Memories that we can verbally describe or declare.

Question 24

What is episodic memory?

Answer 24

Memories of events that have happened directly to us in our lives.
- Can recall sensory information in sequence
- Likened to mental time travel

Question 25

What is semantic memory?

Answer 25

Memories with information without sensory details. - The meaning of words, your address, phone number, etc.

Question 26

What are the neurological differences in semantic and episodic memory?

Answer 26

Episodic memory depends on the reactivation of the same brain regions that were engaged during teh first encoding (1:1). Semantic memory depends on abstracted representations.

Question 27

What is implicit memory?

Answer 27

Information that is encoded and stored, then retrieved outside of consciousness.

Question 28

What is procedural memory?

Answer 28

Learned abilities to perform an automatic behaviour/action.

Question 29

What is prejudice?

Answer 29

Automatic negative judgements of an individual or group, even if judgements/attitudes are outside of conscious awareness.

Question 30

What is the familiarity effect?

Answer 30

People tend to rate some things (music, photographs) more favorably if they have encountered it before. Even if they don’t remember seeing them!

Question 31

What is the propaganda effect?

Answer 31

Individuals presented with statements they had heard before were more likely to rate them as true compared to never-before-heard statements regardless of accuracy.

Question 32

Is implicit or explicit memory more susceptible to forgetting?

Answer 32

Explicit. Implicit memory is less susceptible to forgetting.

Question 33

What is consolidation?

Answer 33

The process of making memories durable (sometimes permanent).

Question 34

Where does synaptic consolidation occur?

Answer 34

Occurs at the synapses. The synapse is repeatedly stimulated which results in more receptors forming, and more neurotransmitters are then released. With long-term potential (LTP), receiving neurons become more likely to fire over time.

Question 35

What is system consolidation?

Answer 35

Depends on the brain laying down new connections between neurons in the cortex. This relies on the hippocampus working together with the cortex.

Question 36

What is hippocampal replay?

Answer 36

A sequence of brain activity is repeatedly stimulated which (or replayed) after initial encoding of an event. - Replay is typically faster than first encoding - Maintains temporal order

Question 37

What are the key points of Chapter 7?

Answer 37

1. Dissociation of short term, long term, and semantic memory. 2. Role of rehearsal to move information from short term to long term memory. Order to presentation, level of processing/encoding, the environment which it took place, the times and level at which information is repeatedly observed. 3. Explicit/declarative memories are those we can verbally describe. Episodic are those of events that happened directly to us in our lives. Semantic are memories with information but no sensory detail,. Implicit is memories we may not be consciously aware of. 4. Synaptic and system consolidation allows the brain to condense memories for storage in LTM by creation of new connections between neurons.